Simulated crisis scenarios are frequently cited as effective tools for organisational and individual learning. The issue is raised that simulation exercises may concentrate learning outcomes for exercise designers, facilitators and observers (the consultants).In contrast, learning outcomes for players (the clients) may be more difficult to define or measure. The authors wish to challenge the notion of organisational learning as a package to be delivered fait accompli, and offer a rival argument that the role of consultants is to empower organisations to learn for themselves and continue after the consultants have left. The paper reviews contemporary theories of learning and considers the commercial and ethical questions about the relationship between consultants and the teams targeted for training. ************************* 3 For those wishing to evaluate crisis simulations, it is unlikely that the teams trained will ever be used in the same format to manage a real crisis. Crisis scenarios are for any management structure, unique events that do not fit with an organisation's history, policy or procedures, if they did then they would not be a crisis. The paper will review existing knowledge about learning as applied to simulation environments and consider how crisis simulations can most effectively add value to the learning process. Individual and Group Learning in Crisis Simulations Edward4 What is a CrisisCrisis, as a phenomenon may be viewed as amorphous. It can effect individuals, groups and organisations even nations in almost limitless contexts. The term crisis needs to be understood if it is to be effectively treated in a training environment.There is rich literature developing on the theme of crisis, but little consensus as to how the term should be defined or modelled. Often the terms emergency, disaster, catastrophe, civil emergency might be used to mean the same thing (Borodzicz, 1997, Dombrowsky, 1995.In the authors' own research, it was found to be helpful to narrow the view of crisis down to the training requirements of a particular organisation. Typically, the focus would be a particular organisation or system in crisis, requiring a group of individuals, perhaps specialists or experts, but often line managers and subordinates, to come together and manage a critical situation. A useful analogy here might be the Chinese concept of crisis, viewed as a 'turning point', containing an element of both 'danger' and 'opportunity'. Solutions to the crisis are by definition unorthodox, at least for the operational and cultural history of the organisation.It is important for scenario planning to understand 'crisis' as distinct from 'emergencies' and 'disasters'. Emergencies are situations requiring rapid applications of the organisation's existent policies and procedures. Simulated emergencies are, therefore, tests or drills, used to practice or evaluate the behaviour of key personnel in their performance. In this context both the problem and solutions are not problematic.Simulations are of value here ...

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Simulations currently play a key role in facilitating competency training for incident commanders of the emergency services. The article briefly reviews current practice in incident command training and considers the effectiveness of simulation usage and practice for crisis management more generally.

Many past educational validity studies of business gaming simulation, and more specifically total enterprise simulation, have been inconclusive. Studies have focused on the weaknesses of business gaming simulation; which is often regarded as an educational medium that has limitations regarding learning effectiveness. However, no attempts have been made to provide guidelines for assessing educational validity in terms of building, implementing, and validating business gaming simulation. Accordingly, this study has combined literature on learning, simulation design, and research methods to formulate a methodology to assess the educational validity of total enterprise simulation; the concepts of which can be applied more broadly to business gaming simulation. The authors propose that the framework introduced within this article can provide a foundation for future educational validity studies that can assist simulation designers to implement valuable and powerful simulation learning media in the future.

This paper reports on research into the effectiveness of strategic commanders and their multi-agency teams in response to major incidents. It is argued that current models of crisis leadership fail to establish a balance between the requirement for task skills, interpersonal skills, stakeholder awareness and personal qualities of commanders and their teams. The paper sets out a theoretical model for interwoven leadership combining these features.