Trophoblast invasion of the uterine extracellular matrix, a critical process of human implantation and essential for fetal development, is a striking example of controlled invasiveness. To identify molecules that regulate trophoblast invasion, mRNA signatures of trophoblast cells isolated from first trimester (high invasiveness) and term placentae (no/low invasiveness) were compared using U95A GeneChip microarrays yielding 220 invasion/migrationrelated genes. In this 'invasion cluster', KiSS-1 and its G-protein-coupled receptor KiSS-1R were expressed at higher levels in first trimester trophoblasts than at term of gestation. Receptor and ligand mRNA and protein were localized to the trophoblast compartment. In contrast to KiSS-1, which is only expressed in the villous trophoblast, KiSS-1R was also found in the extravillous trophoblast, suggesting endocrine/paracrine activation mechanisms. The primary translation product of KiSS-1 is a 145 amino acid polypeptide (Kp-145), but shorter kisspeptins (Kp) with 10, 13, 14 or 54 amino acid residues may be produced. We identified Kp-10, a dekapeptide derived from the primary translation product, in conditioned medium of first trimester human trophoblast. Kp-10, but not other kisspeptins, increased intracellular Ca 2+ levels in isolated first trimester trophoblasts. Kp-10 inhibited trophoblast migration in an explant as well as transwell assay without affecting proliferation. Suppressed motility was paralleled with suppressed gelatinolytic activity of isolated trophoblasts. These results identifed Kp-10 as a novel paracrine/endocrine regulator in fine-tuning trophoblast invasion generated by the trophoblast itself.

Extracellular matrix (ECM) fragments or cryptic sites unmasked by proteinases have been postulated to affect tissue remodeling and cancer progression. Therefore, the elucidation of their identities and functions is of great interest. Here, we show that matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) generate a domain (DIII) from the ECM macromolecule laminin-5. Binding of a recombinant DIII fragment to epidermal growth factor receptor stimulates downstream signaling (mitogen-activated protein kinase), MMP-2 gene expression, and cell migration. Appearance of this cryptic ECM ligand in remodeling mammary gland coincides with MMP-mediated involution in wild-type mice, but not in tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (TIMP-3)–deficient mice, supporting physiological regulation of DIII liberation. These findings indicate that ECM cues may operate via direct stimulation of receptor tyrosine kinases in tissue remodeling, and possibly cancer invasion.

In hair cells, mechanotransduction channels are gated by tip links, the extracellular filaments that consist of cadherin 23 (CDH23) and protocadherin 15 (PCDH15) and connect the stereocilia of each hair cell. However, which molecules mediate cadherin function at tip links is not known. Here we show that the PDZ-domain protein harmonin is a component of the upper tip-link density (UTLD), where CDH23 inserts into the stereociliary membrane. Harmonin domains that mediate interactions with CDH23 and F-actin control harmonin localization in stereocilia and are necessary for normal hearing. In mice expressing a mutant harmonin protein that prevents UTLD formation, the sensitivity of hair bundles to mechanical stimulation is reduced. We conclude that harmonin is a UTLD component and contributes to establishing the sensitivity of mechanotransduction channels to displacement.

In cancer and angiogenesis, coagulation-independent roles of tissue factor (TF) in cell migration are incompletely understood. Immobilized anti-TF extracellular domain antibodies induce cell spreading, but this phenomenon is epitope specific and is not induced by anti-TF 5G9. Spreading on anti-TF is ␤1 integrin-dependent, indicating functional interactions of the TF extracellular domain 5G9 epitope (a presumed integrin-binding site) and integrins. Recombinant TF extracellular domain supports adhesion of cells expressing ␣v␤3 or certain ␤1 integrin heterodimers (␣3␤1, ␣4␤1, ␣5␤1, ␣6␤1, ␣9␤1) and adhesion is blocked by specific anti-integrin antibodies or mutations in the integrin ligand-binding site. Although several studies have linked TF to cell migration, we here demonstrate that TF specifically regulates ␣3␤1-dependent migration on laminin 5. Expression of TF suppresses ␣3␤1-dependent migration, but only when the TF cytoplasmic domain is not phosphorylated. Suppression of migration can be reversed by 5G9, presumably by disrupting integrin interaction, or by the protease ligand VIIa, known to induce PAR-2-dependent phosphorylation of TF. In both cases, release of ␣3␤1 inhibition is prevented by mutation of critical phosphorylation sites in the TF cytoplasmic domain. Thus, TF influences integrin-mediated migration through cooperative intra-and extracellular interactions and phosphorylation regulates TF's function in cell motility. INTRODUCTIONTissue factor (TF) is the cell surface receptor for the serine protease coagulation factor VIIa (VIIa; Ruf and Edgington, 1994). The complex of TF-VIIa activates the coagulation cascade, leading to thrombin generation, fibrin formation, and platelet activation. Local fibrin deposition is frequently observed in malignancy and TF plays an important role in cancer invasion and metastasis (Dvorak et al., 1992;Shoji et al., 1998). TF supports metastatic tumor dissemination (Mueller et al., 1992) by fibrin-dependent pathways (Palumbo et al., 2000), by aiding thrombin-dependent tumor cell survival (Fischer et al., 1995;Ruf and Mueller, 1996;Zain et al., 2000), and through signaling that involves the short TF cytoplasmic domain (Bromberg et al., 1995;Mueller and Ruf, 1998). TF is also found at the leading edge of invasive tumors (Fischer et al., 1999) and in angiogenic endothelial cells (Contrino et al., 1996). In vitro studies documented a close association of TF with cytoskeletal structures (Carson et al., 1994;Ott et al., 1998;Mü ller et al., 1999) and indicated potential roles in regulating cell motility, such as reverse endothelial cell migration of monocytes (Randolph et al., 1998), enhanced chemotactic fibroblast migration (Siegbahn et al., 2000), and tumor cell adhesion and migration on extracellular ligands for TF (Ott et al., 1998;Fischer et al., 1999). In TF cytoplasmic domain-deleted mice, we have recently provided evidence that the TF cytoplasmic domain can negatively regulate angiogenesis and endothelial sprouting (Belting et al., 2004). However, the molecular intera...

Autoimmune liver diseases, such as autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary biliary cirrhosis, often have severe consequences for the patient. Because of a lack of appropriate animal models, not much is known about their potential viral etiology. Infection by liver-tropic viruses is one possibility for the breakdown of self-tolerance. Therefore, we infected mice with adenovirus Ad5 expressing human cytochrome P450 2D6 (Ad-2D6). Ad-2D6–infected mice developed persistent autoimmune liver disease, apparent by cellular infiltration, hepatic fibrosis, “fused” liver lobules, and necrosis. Similar to type 2 AIH patients, Ad-2D6–infected mice generated type 1 liver kidney microsomal–like antibodies recognizing the immunodominant epitope WDPAQPPRD of cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6). Interestingly, Ad-2D6–infected wild-type FVB/N mice displayed exacerbated liver damage when compared with transgenic mice expressing the identical human CYP2D6 protein in the liver, indicating the presence of a stronger immunological tolerance in CYP2D6 mice. We demonstrate for the first time that infection with a virus expressing a natural human autoantigen breaks tolerance, resulting in a chronic form of severe, autoimmune liver damage. Our novel model system should be instrumental for studying mechanisms involved in the initiation, propagation, and precipitation of virus-induced autoimmune liver diseases.

Ataxin-2 is a cytoplasmic protein, product of the SCA2 gene. Expansion of the normal polyglutamine tract in the protein leads to the neurodegenerative disorder Spino-Cerebellar Ataxia type 2 (SCA2). Although ataxin-2 has been related to polyribosomes, endocytosis and actin-cytoskeleton organization, its biological function remains unknown. In the present study, an ataxin-2 deficient mouse (Sca2(-/-)) was generated to investigate the functional role of this protein. Homozygous mice exhibited reduced fertility and locomotor hyperactivity. In analyses up to the age of 6 months, the absence of ataxin-2 led to abdominal obesity and hepatosteatosis. This was associated with reduced insulin receptor expression in liver and cerebellum, although the mRNA levels were increased indicating a post-transcriptional effect of ataxin-2 on the insulin receptor status. As in insulin resistance syndromes, insulin levels were increased in pancreas and blood serum. In the cerebellum, increased levels of gangliosides and sulfatides, as well as decreased cholesterol dynamics, may be relevant for cellular membrane functions, and alterations in the sphingomyelin cycle may affect second messengers. Thus, the data suggest altered signaling in ataxin-2 deficient organisms.

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Keratinocytes and other epithelial cells express two receptors for the basement membrane (BM) extracellular matrix component laminin-5 (Ln-5), integrins α3β1 and α6β4. While α3β1 mediates adhesion, spreading, and migration (Kreidberg, J.A. 2000. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 12:548–553), α6β4 is involved in BM anchorage via hemidesmosomes (Borradori, L., and A. Sonnenberg. 1999. J. Invest. Dermatol. 112:411–418). We investigated a possible regulatory interplay between α3β1 and α6β4 in cell motility using HaCaT keratinocytes as a model. We found that α6β4 antibodies inhibit α3β1-mediated migration on Ln-5, but only when migration is haptotactic (i.e., spontaneous or stimulated by α3β1 activation), and not when chemotactic (i.e., triggered by epidermal growth factor receptor). Inhibition of migration by α6β4 depends upon phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3-K) since it is abolished by PI3-K blockers and by dominant-negative PI3-K, and constitutively active PI3-K prevents haptotaxis. In HaCaT cells incubated with anti–α6β4 antibodies, activation of PI3-K is mediated by α6β4-associated erbB-2, as indicated by erbB-2 autophosphorylation and erbB-2/p85 PI3-K coprecipitation. Furthermore, dominant-negative erbB-2 abolishes inhibition of haptotaxis by anti–α6β4 antibodies. These results support a model whereby (a) haptotactic cell migration on Ln-5 is regulated by concerted action of α3β1 and α6β4 integrins, (b) α6β4-associated erbB-2 and PI3-K negatively affect haptotaxis, and (c) chemotaxis on Ln-5 is not affected by α6β4 antibodies and may require PI3-K activity. This model could be of general relevance to motility of epithelial cells in contact with BM.