Published reports and our own diagnostic data on the avian host range of avian Chlamydophila spp. are presented in an attempt to provide evidence for the large number of bird species that have been naturally infected with chlamydia. The term 'chlamydia-positive' is based on either isolation of the organism and antigen detection or on serological detection of circulating antibodies. The list of chlamydia-positive birds contains the six major domestic species (chicken, turkey, Pekin duck, Muscovy duck, goose, and pigeon), the three minor domestic species (Japanese quail, bobwhite quail, and peafowl) and a total of 460 free-living or pet bird species in 30 orders. The order Psittaciformes contains by far the most (153 of 342; 45%) chlamydia-positive bird species. More than 20% of all species per order are positive for chlamydia in the orders Lariformes (gulls, 26 of 92 species; 28%), Alciformes (alks, six of 23 species; 26%), Sphenisciformes (penguins, four of 16 species; 25%), and Anseriformes (ducks and geese, 33 of 157 species; 21%). Only 5% of all bird species (14 of 259 species) in the order Phasianiformes (gallinaceus birds) are chlamydia-positive. The different percentages of chlamydia-positive bird species reflect: (i) a high rate of investigations (e.g. of domestic birds) compared with infrequent testing (e.g. of Charadriiformes or Cuculiformes), (ii) frequent zoonotic implications (e.g. psittacine and columbiform birds), and (iii) an assumed high susceptibility to infection and subsequent seroconversion (e.g. waterfowl).
Newcastle disease virus (NDV) strains, isolated from outbreaks during epizootics between 1992 and 1996 in Western European countries, were compared by restriction enzyme cleavage site mapping of the fusion (F) protein gene between nucleotides 334 and 1682 and by sequence analysis between nucleotides 47 and 435. Both methods revealed that NDV strains responsible for these epizootics belong to two distinct genotypes. Strains derived from sporadic cases in Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland and Austria were classified into genotype VI [6], the same group which caused outbreaks in the Middle East and Greece in the late 1960's and in Hungary in the early 1980's. In contrast, viruses that caused epizootics in Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands, Spain and Italy could be classified into a novel genotype (provisionally termed VII), hitherto undetected in Europe. It is possible that the genotype VII viruses originated in the Far East because they showed a high genetic similarity (97%) to NDV strains isolated from Indonesia in the late 1980's.
INTRODUCTIONNewcastle disease (ND) has economic and ecologic impact on pet and free-living as well as on domestic birds. Virtually all of the approximately 8,000 species of birds seem to be susceptible to infection with Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs).A precise and detailed review of the abundant literature published since the first report on ND by DOYLE (54) is impeded by several obstacles:Casuistic reports contain quite frequently only anecdotal information on clinical signs and pathological lesions. Transmission experiments using the same species of birds from which the isolate was recovered are either not performed at all or are done with birds of unknown immune status with respect to NDV and/or other agents.Quite a number of articles have been published in languages for which an authorative translation is not easily available. This review will deal with publications in the official languages of the World's Veterinary Poultry Association. If available, English abstracts of papers in other languages were also considered.The identification of affected birds is sometimes given only as the vernacular name or specified in latinized names and/or systematic categories, which are no longer in use or have been modified often since the publication of original papers. Nomenclature and taxonomy of birds has been subject to change in the past and probably will be modified in the future. Volatile terminology of names and taxons creates difficulties in asigning hosts to current established systematic categorit:s. This paper makes use of the systematic list of birds published by WOLTERS (241 198Strains which are highly pathogenic for the domestic chicken are evaluated in most of the reports. It is only in the last two decades that NDVs are described which are not pathogenic for chickens or any other species of birds. These viruses were mostly obtained within the frame work of avian influenza A surveillance studies.Many papers contain limited experimental data which fail to unequivocally prove that the isolated agent is indeed NDV, ego paramyxovirus (PMV)-I and not a member of the other proposed serotypes 2 to 9.Most of the early isolates are lost or have been passaged unknown times in ill-defined culture systems making a detailed and meaningful re-examination with currently available techniques impossible. This fact demands again the foundation and maintenance of an internationally operating reference laboratory.Despite of these shortcomings it is attempted in this review to summarize briefly the epizootiology and the main characteristics -with respect to the host species of birds -of the various clinical forms and pathological manifestations of ND in birds. For questions relating to virus isolation and characterization, disease prevention and control by immune prophylaxis the reader is refered to the respective chapters of this monograph. EPIZOOTIOLOGYSignificant spread of NDV may occur along three major routes: (a) Movement of live domestic poultry, poultry products (meat, eggs, feathers etc), offal and manure; (b) movem...
A review is given of the occurrence of poxviruses in different bird species. The ® rst publications appeared in Europe around 1850. At that time, pox as a de® nite disease entity was diagnosed on the basis of clinical signs, while later the detection of Bollinger's inclusion bodies (1877) allowed an aetiological diagnosis by microscopically visible viral aggregates. Virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs and direct electron microscopy gained importance as diagnostic tools in the 1950s. Also brie¯y described are avipoxvirus taxonomy, virus characteristics, clinical signs, modes of prevention and diagnostic procedures.Of the approximately 9000 bird species, about 232 species in 23 orders have been reported to have acquired a natural poxvirus infection. However, it is likely that many more birds are susceptible to avipoxviruses.
frequently, but led to detection of higher percentages of seropositivity (23.7 -67.7 % and 35.9 -49 95.6 %, respectively). Attempts to grow C. psittaci in cell culture or embryonated chicken eggs 50 were successful in 2 -42.3 % and 0 -57.1 % of samples, respectively, antigen detection methods 51 were positive in 2.3 -40% of samples, while conventional PCR and real-time PCR using different 52
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