Can heritable traits in a single species affect an entire ecosystem? Recent studies show that such traits in a common tree have predictable effects on community structure and ecosystem processes. Because these 'community and ecosystem phenotypes' have a genetic basis and are heritable, we can begin to apply the principles of population and quantitative genetics to place the study of complex communities and ecosystems within an evolutionary framework. This framework could allow us to understand, for the first time, the genetic basis of ecosystem processes, and the effect of such phenomena as climate change and introduced transgenic organisms on entire communities.

We present evidence that the heritable genetic variation within individual species, especially dominant and keystone species, has community and ecosystem consequences. These consequences represent extended phenotypes, i.e., the effects of genes at levels higher than the population. Using diverse examples from microbes to vertebrates, we demonstrate that the extended phenotype can be traced from the individuals possessing the trait, to the community, and to ecosystem processes such as leaf litter decomposition and N mineralization. In our development of a community genetics perspective, we focus on intraspecific genetic variation because the extended phenotypes of these genes can be passed from one generation to the next, which provides a mechanism for heritability. In support of this view, common‐garden experiments using synthetic crosses of a dominant tree show that their progeny tend to support arthropod communities that resemble those of their parents. We also argue that the combined interactions of extended phenotypes contribute to the among‐community variance in the traits of individuals within communities. The genetic factors underlying this among‐community variance in trait expression, particularly those involving genetic interactions among species, constitute community heritability. These findings have diverse implications. (1) They provide a genetic framework for understanding community structure and ecosystem processes. The effects of extended phenotypes at these higher levels need not be diffuse; they may be direct or may act in relatively few steps, which enhances our ability to detect and predict their effects. (2) From a conservation perspective, we introduce the concept of the minimum viable interacting population (MVIP), which represents the size of a population needed to maintain genetic diversity at levels required by other interacting species in the community. (3) Genotype × environment interactions in dominant and keystone species can shift extended phenotypes to have unexpected consequences at community and ecosystem levels, an issue that is especially important as it relates to global change. (4) Documenting community heritability justifies a community genetics perspective and is an essential first step in demonstrating community evolution. (5) Community genetics requires and promotes an integrative approach, from genes to ecosystems, that is necessary for the marriage of ecology and genetics. Few studies span from genes to ecosystems, but such integration is probably essential for understanding the natural world. Corresponding Editor: A. A. Agrawal

Using two genetic approaches and seven different plant systems, we present findings from a metaanalysis examining the strength of the effects of plant genetic introgression and genotypic diversity across individual, community and ecosystem levels with the goal of synthesizing the patterns to date. We found that (i) the strength of plant genetic effects can be quite high; however, the overall strength of genetic effects on most response variables declined as the levels of organization increased. (ii) Plant genetic effects varied such that introgression had a greater impact on individual phenotypes than extended effects on arthropods or microbes/fungi. By contrast, the greatest effects of genotypic diversity were on arthropods. (iii) Plant genetic effects were greater on above-ground versus below-ground processes, but there was no difference between terrestrial and aquatic environments. (iv) The strength of the effects of intraspecific genotypic diversity tended to be weaker than interspecific genetic introgression. (v) Although genetic effects generally decline across levels of organization, in some cases they do not, suggesting that specific organisms and /or processes may respond more than others to underlying genetic variation. Because patterns in the overall impacts of introgression and genotypic diversity were generally consistent across diverse study systems and consistent with theoretical expectations, these results provide generality for understanding the extended consequences of plant genetic variation across levels of organization, with evolutionary implications.

Although soil microbial communities are known to play crucial roles in the cycling of nutrients in forest ecosystems and can vary by plant species, how microorganisms respond to the subtle gradients of plant genetic variation is just beginning to be appreciated. Using a model Populus system in a common garden with replicated clones of known genotypes, we evaluated microbial biomass and community composition as quantitative traits. Two main patterns emerged. (1) Plant genotype influenced microbial biomass nitrogen in soils under replicated genotypes of Populus angustifolia, F1, and backcross hybrids, but not P. fremontii. Genotype explained up to 78% of the variation in microbial biomass as indicated by broad-sense heritability estimates (i.e., clonal repeatability). A second estimate of microbial biomass (total phospholipid fatty acid) was more conservative and showed significant genotype effects in P. angustifolia and backcross hybrids. (2) Plant genotype significantly influenced microbial community composition, explaining up to 70% of the variation in community composition within P. angustifolia genotypes alone. These findings suggest that variation in above- and belowground traits of individual plant genotypes can alter soil microbial dynamics, and suggests that further investigations of the evolutionary implications of genetic feedbacks are warranted.

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Riparian ecosystems support mosaics of terrestrial and aquatic plant species that enhance regional biodiversity and provide important ecosystem services to humans. Species composition and the distribution of functional traits – traits that define species in terms of their ecological roles – within riparian plant communities are rapidly changing in response to various global change drivers. Here, we present a conceptual framework illustrating how changes in dependent wildlife communities and ecosystem processes can be predicted by examining shifts in riparian plant functional trait diversity and redundancy (overlap). Three widespread examples of altered riparian plant composition are: shifts in the dominance of deciduous and coniferous species; increases in drought‐tolerant species; and the increasing global distribution of plantation and crop species. Changes in the diversity and distribution of critical plant functional traits influence terrestrial and aquatic food webs, organic matter production and processing, nutrient cycling, water quality, and water availability. Effective conservation efforts and riparian ecosystems management require matching of plant functional trait diversity and redundancy with tolerance to environmental changes in all biomes.

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Summary• Here, soil CO 2 efflux, minirhizotron fine root production (FRP), and estimated total below-ground carbon allocation (TBCA) were examined along an elevation and hybridization gradient between two cottonwood species.• FRP was 72% greater under high-elevation Populus angustifolia , but soil CO 2 efflux and TBCA were 62% and 94% greater, respectively, under low-elevation stands dominated by Populus fremontii , with a hybrid stand showing intermediate values.• Differences between the responses of FRP, soil CO 2 efflux and TBCA may potentially be explained in terms of genetic controls; while plant species and hybridization explained variance in carbon flux, we found only weak correlations of FRP and TBCA with soil moisture, and no correlations with soil temperature or nitrogen availability.• Soil CO 2 efflux and TBCA were uncorrelated with FRP, suggesting that, although below-ground carbon fluxes may change along environmental and genetic gradients, major components of below-ground carbon flux may be decoupled.