Age-related changes in inhibitory neurotransmission in sensory cortex may underlie deficits in sensory function. Perineuronal nets (PNNs) are extracellular matrix components that ensheath some inhibitory neurons, particularly parvalbumin positive (PV+) interneurons. PNNs may protect PV+ cells from oxidative stress and help establish their rapid spiking properties. Although PNN expression has been well characterized during development, possible changes in aging sensory cortex have not been investigated. Here we tested the hypothesis that PNN+, PV+ and PV/PNN co-localized cell densities decline with age in the primary auditory cortex (A1). This hypothesis was tested using immunohistochemistry in two strains of mice (C57BL/6 and CBA/CaJ) with different susceptibility to age-related hearing loss and at three different age ranges (1–3, 6–8 and 14–24 months old). We report that PNN+ and PV/PNN co-localized cell densities decline significantly with age in A1 in both mouse strains. In the PNN+ cells that remain in the old group, the intensity of PNN staining is reduced in the C57 strain, but not the CBA strain. PV+ cell density also declines only in the C57, but not the CBA, mouse suggesting a potential exacerbation of age-effects by hearing loss in the PV/PNN system. Taken together, these data suggest that PNN deterioration may be a key component of altered inhibition in the aging sensory cortex, that may lead to altered synaptic function, susceptibility to oxidative stress and processing deficits.

The auditory cortex is necessary for sound localization. The mechanisms that shape bicoordinate spatial representation in the auditory cortex remain unclear. Here, we addressed this issue by quantifying spatial receptive fields (SRFs) in two functionally distinct cortical regions in the pallid bat. The pallid bat uses echolocation for obstacle avoidance and listens to prey-generated noise to localize prey. Its cortex contains two segregated regions of response selectivity that serve echolocation and localization of prey-generated noise. The main aim of this study was to compare 2D SRFs between neurons in the noise-selective region (NSR) and the echolocation region [frequencymodulated sweep-selective region (FMSR)]. The data reveal the following major differences between these two regions: (1) compared with NSR neurons, SRF properties of FMSR neurons were more strongly dependent on sound level; (2) as a population, NSR neurons represent a broad region of contralateral space, while FMSR selectivity was focused near the midline at sound levels near threshold and expanded considerably with increasing sound levels; and (3) the SRF size and centroid elevation were correlated with the characteristic frequency in the NSR, but not the FMSR. These data suggest different mechanisms of sound localization for two different behaviors. Previously, we reported that azimuth is represented by predictable changes in the extent of activated cortex. The present data indicate how elevation constrains this activity pattern. These data suggest a novel model for bicoordinate spatial representation that is based on the extent of activated cortex resulting from the overlap of binaural and tonotopic maps.

In active sensing, animals make motor adjustments to match sensory inputs to specialized neural circuitry. Here, we describe an active sensing system for sound level processing. The pallid bat uses downward frequency-modulated (FM) sweeps as echolocation calls for general orientation and obstacle avoidance. The bat’s auditory cortex contains a region selective for these FM sweeps (FM sweep-selective region, FMSR). We show that the vast majority of FMSR neurons are sensitive and strongly selective for relatively low levels (30-60 dB SPL). Behavioral testing shows that when a flying bat approaches a target, it reduces output call levels to keep echo levels between ∼30 and 55 dB SPL. Thus, the pallid bat behaviorally matches echo levels to an optimized neural representation of sound levels. FMSR neurons are more selective for sound levels of FM sweeps than tones, suggesting that across-frequency integration enhances level tuning. Level-dependent timing of high-frequency sideband inhibition in the receptive field shapes increased level selectivity for FM sweeps. Together with previous studies, these data indicate that the same receptive field properties shape multiple filters (sweep direction, rate, and level) for FM sweeps, a sound common in multiple vocalizations, including human speech. The matched behavioral and neural adaptations for low-intensity echolocation in the pallid bat will facilitate foraging with reduced probability of acoustic detection by prey.

Acute auditory processing in bats is typically associated with echolocation. A subset of bats, called gleaners, listens to prey-generated noise to hunt surface-dwelling prey. Gleaners depend less on echolocation to hunt and, therefore, accurate localization of prey-generated noise is necessary for foraging success. Here we studied azimuth sound localization behavior in the pallid bat, a gleaning bat in which spatial encoding has been studied extensively. We tested pallid bats on a relatively difficult open loop task (single sound, duration ≤ 200 ms). The bats were trained to face the midline when stimulus was presented, and this was confirmed with video analysis. Bats localized broadband noise (5–30 kHz) from 1 out of 11 speakers spaced evenly across the horizontal plane of the frontal sound field. Approach to the correct speaker was rewarded. Pallid bats show accurate localization near the midline with mean errors between 3–6°. Remarkably, the accuracy does not decline significantly at peripheral locations with bats averaging  <~7° error upto 72° off midline. Manipulation of stimulus bandwidth shows that higher frequencies (20–30 kHz) are necessary for accurate localization. Comparative studies of gleaning bats will reveal convergent adaptations across auditory systems for non-echolocation-based behaviors in bats.