BackgroundVenomous snakebite and its effects are a source of fear for people living in southern Nepal. As a result, people have developed a negative attitude towards snakes, which can lead to human-snake conflicts that result in killing of snakes. Attempting to kill snakes increases the risk of snakebite, and actual killing of snakes contributes to loss of biodiversity. Currently, snake populations in southern Nepal are thought to be declining, but more research is needed to evaluate the conservation status of snakes. Therefore, we assessed attitudes, knowledge, and awareness of snakes and snakebite by Chitwan National Park’s (CNP) buffer zone (BZ) inhabitants in an effort to better understand challenges to snake conservation and snakebite management. The results of this study have the potential to promote biodiversity conservation and increase human health in southern Nepal and beyond.MethodsWe carried out face-to-face interviews of 150 randomly selected CNP BZ inhabitants, adopting a cross-sectional mixed research design and structured and semi-structured questionnaires from January–February 2013.ResultsResults indicated that 43 % of respondents disliked snakes, 49 % would exterminate all venomous snakes, and 86 % feared snakes. Farmers were the most negative and teachers were the most ambivalent towards snakes. Respondents were generally unable to identify different snake species, and were almost completely unaware of the need of conserve snakes and how to prevent snakebites. Belief in a snake god, and the ability of snakes to absorb poisonous gases from the atmosphere were among many superstitions that appeared to predispose negativity towards snakes of BZ residents.ConclusionPeople with predisposed negativity towards snakes were not proponents of snake conservation. Fear, negativity, ambivalence towards, and ignorance about, snakes and the need for snake conservation were strong indicators of the propensity to harm or kill snakes. It seems that if wanton killing of snakes continues, local snake populations will decline, and rare and endangered snake species may even become locally extirpated. Moreover, inappropriate perception and knowledge about snakes and snakebites may put BZ people at increased risk of venomous snakebite. Therefore, intensive, pragmatic educational efforts focused on natural history and ecology of snakes and prevention of snakebite should be undertaken in communities and at schools and universities.

Introduction: Snake envenomation is a major public health issue in the rural tropics, but there is no accurate figure of incidence of snakebite. Few studies have looked at the epidemiology of venomous snakebite in Nepal.Methods: Using data collection sheets, enumerators randomly sampled, visited, and interrogated 20% of the population from each district.Results: Of the 2,186 snakebite cases studied in two districts from April to September 2005, 66% were from Nawalparasi and 34% from Chitwan. 54% were males. 56% of patients consulted traditional healers. Most bites occurred in those 10-20 years of age and in those engaged in outdoor and agricultural (farmers) activities, but I should note that 15% occurred during sleep. Extremity bites accounted for 94%, with 66% in the lower extremities and 28% in the upper extremities. Of the total cases, 58% were nonenvenomations and 42% were envenomations. Of the total venomous cases, 27% died; which is 12% of the total snakebites (2,186). The majority of bites occurred in the summer.Conclusions: This epidemiological study vividly depicted the health hazards of snakebites in two areas of rural Nepal.

Snakebite is an important medical emergency in rural Nepal. Correct identification of the biting species is crucial for clinicians to choose appropriate treatment and anticipate complications. This is particularly important for neurotoxic envenoming which, depending on the snake species involved, may not respond to available antivenoms. Adequate species identification tools are lacking. This study used a combination of morphological and molecular approaches (PCR-aided DNA sequencing from swabs of bite sites) to determine the contribution of venomous and non-venomous species to the snakebite burden in southern Nepal. Out of 749 patients admitted with a history of snakebite to one of three study centres, the biting species could be identified in 194 (25.9%). Out of these, 87 had been bitten by a venomous snake, most commonly the Indian spectacled cobra (Naja naja; n = 42) and the common krait (Bungarus caeruleus; n = 22). When both morphological identification and PCR/sequencing results were available, a 100% agreement was noted. The probability of a positive PCR result was significantly lower among patients who had used inadequate “first aid” measures (e.g. tourniquets or local application of remedies). This study is the first to report the use of forensic genetics methods for snake species identification in a prospective clinical study. If high diagnostic accuracy is confirmed in larger cohorts, this method will be a very useful reference diagnostic tool for epidemiological investigations and clinical studies.

BackgroundSeveral lichen species are reported to be used tradiationally in many theraupatic practices. Many lichen species are reported as sources of several bioactive natural compounds. Several lichen species of Nepal are so far chemically unexplored.MethodsThe morphological, anatomical and phytochemical characteristics of lichens were compared for the taxonomic identification of the species. Methanol- water extract of lichens were sub fractionated into hexane, dichloromethane and methanol fractions for bioactivity assays. Antimicrobial activities of extracts were evaluated agaisnt pathogenic bacteria and fungal species. DPPH test was used for antioxidant potential evaluation. Brineshrimp test was perfermed to evaluate toxicity of the extracts.ResultsA total of 84 lichen specimens were collected and identified from Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) Nepal. The specimens were identified as belonging to 19 genera and 47 species. Methanol fractions of 16 specimens and dichloromethane (DCM) fractions of 21 lichens specimens showed antioxidant activities comparable with commercial standards (BHA, Butylated hydroxyanisole, IC50=4.9±0.9 μg/mL) even at crude extract level. Similarly, the DCM fraction of 17 lichens showed potential antimicrobial activity against a Gram-positive bacterium (Staphylococcus aureus KCTC3881) and DCM fractions of 45 lichens showed antimicrobial activity against a Gram-negative bacterium (Klebsiella pneumoniae KCTC2242). DCM fractions of three lichens showed antifungal activity against the yeast, Candida albicans KCTC 7965. Likewise, methanol fractions of 39 lichens and DCM fractions of 74 lichens showed strong toxicity against brine shrimp nauplii with more than 80% mortality.ConclusionSuch biological activity-rich lichen specimens warrant further research on exploration of natural products with antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti cancer (toxic) potential.

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A total of twenty four lichen species belonging to six families were collected from mountainous region of Nepal. The methanol extracts of each species were tested for antimicrobial and antioxidant activities in vitro. It was found that extracts of twenty one lichen species were active against B. subtilis and seven species were active against S. aureus. Similarly, in DPPH assay, three species Peltigera sp., Cladonia sp., and Canoparmelia sp. showed comparable activity with commercial standard, BHA. In ABTS + assay, extracts of Parmoterma sp., Ramalina sp., Peltigera sp. and Cladonia sp. showed stronger activity than ascorbic acid. The observed data after comparison with previously published reports indicated that the high altitude lichens contain stronger antioxidant and antibacterial constituents. Similarly, the methanol extracts of Heterodermia sp. and Ramalina sp. showed comparable toxicity eff ect with commercial standard berberine chloride indicating a potent source of anticancer drugs.

Background Published information on snakebite is rare in Bhutan although remarkably higher number of snakebites and associated deaths are reported from other South Asian countries. Aims and methodology Structured questionnaire was used to collect knowledge of health workers in snakebite management and health seeking behavior of snakebite victims as observed by health workers. Study was conducted in purposively sampled 10 Dzongkhags (district level administrative units) with higher incidence of snakebites. Result Heath workers scored 27–91% (with an average of 63%, SD = 14) for 52 questions related to snake identification and snakebite management. Among 118 health workers interviewed, 23% had adequate knowledge on snakes and snakebite management while 77% had inadequate knowledge. Among 32 Doctors, 63% of them scored above or equal to 75%. Health workers from Sarpang scored higher (76%, SD = 11) than those from other Dzongkhags. Snakebite victim's visit to local (traditional) healers prior to seeking medical help from hospital was observed by 75 (63%) health workers. Fifty one percent of health workers observed patients treated with local methods such as the use of black stone called Jhhar Mauro (believed to absorb snake venom), application of honey, rubbing of green herbal paste made up of Khenpa Shing (Artemisia myriantha Wallich ex Besser var. paleocephala [Pamp] Ling) and consumption of fluid made up of Neem leaf (Azadirachta indica Juss). Use of tight tourniquet as a first aid to snakebite was observed by 80% of the health workers. Conclusion Health workers lack confidence in snakebite management. Snakebite victims are likely to suffer from harmful local practices and traditional beliefs on local treatment practices. Empowering health workers with adequate knowledge on snakebite management and making locals aware in pre-hospital care of snakebites are needed to improve the pre- and in-hospital management of snakebite in Bhutan.

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