Plasma-liquid interactions represent a growing interdisciplinary area of research involving plasma science, fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, photolysis, multiphase chemistry and aerosol science. This review provides an assessment of the state-of-the-art of this multidisciplinary area and identifies the key research challenges. The developments in diagnostics, modeling and further extensions of cross section and reaction rate databases that are necessary to address these challenges are discussed. The review focusses on nonequilibrium plasmas.

In this review paper, we discuss the current status of the physics of charged particle swarms, mainly electrons, having plasma modelling in mind. The measurements of the swarm coefficients and the availability of the data are briefly discussed. We try to give a summary of the past ten years and cite the main reviews and databases, which store the majority of the earlier work. The need for reinitiating the swarm experiments and where and how those would be useful is pointed out. We also add some guidance on how to find information on ions and fast neutrals. Most space is devoted to interpretation of transport data, analysis of kinetic phenomena, and accuracy of calculation and proper use of transport data in plasma models. We have tried to show which aspects of kinetic theory developed for swarm physics and which segments of data would be important for further improvement of plasma models. Finally, several examples are given where actual models are mostly based on the physics of swarms and those include Townsend discharges, afterglows, breakdown and some atmospheric phenomena. Finally we stress that, while complex, some of the results from the kinetic theory of swarms and the related phenomenology must be used either to test the plasma models or even to bring in new physics or higher accuracy and reliability to the models.

The dependence of electron density and ion flux on radiofrequency (RF) power has been measured in a 2 + 27 MHz dual-frequency capacitive discharge with silicon electrodes at 6.7 Pa gas pressure. In Ar/O 2 mixtures the electron density and the ion flux vary in a very similar way (i.e. their ratio, υ, is constant), in good agreement with the simple electropositive transport theory. Both 27 and 2 MHz RF powers have a significant effect on the plasma density and the ion flux. The effect of the 2 MHz power is likely a combination of enhanced plasma heating by dual-frequency excitation and ionization caused by secondary electron beams, which are known to be produced efficiently at oxidized silicon surfaces. In contrast, in Ar/C 4 F 8 /O 2 mixtures such as those used for industrial dielectric etching, υ is always bigger than the theoretical electropositive value, and becomes very high when the ratio of 2 to 27 MHz power is high. Under these conditions the electron density is very small, whereas the ion flux remains considerable. We attribute the increased plasma transport to the presence of a significant density of F − negative ions, combined with increased penetration of the 2 MHz electric field into the plasma bulk at high 2/27 MHz power ratios.

We report studies on argon glow discharges established between flat disc electrodes, at pressure × electrode separation (pd) values between 45 and 150 Pa cm, with special attention to heavy-particle processes including heavy-particle excitation induced light emission. The discharges are investigated experimentally and also through self-consistent hybrid modelling. The comparison of the experimental and computed light intensity distributions verifies the correctness of the model, which gives a detailed insight into the discharge operation. The efficiency of heavy-particle excitation shows a universal dependence on the reduced electric field. At the higher pd values the scaling of electrical characteristics and light emission intensity with electrode separation is verified, however, additional processes (radial losses of charged particles and reduction of the active cathode area) result in the violation of scaling at the lowest pd value when the discharge tube diameter is kept constant.

We give preliminary results on the breakdown and low current limit of volt-ampere characteristics of simple parallel plate non-equilibrium dc discharges at standard (centimetre size) and micro-discharge conditions. Experiments with micro-discharges are reported attempting to establish the maintenance of E/N, pd and j/p 2 scalings at small dimensions down to 20 µm. It was found that it may not be possible to obtain properly the left-hand side of the Paschen curve. The possible causes are numerous but we believe that it is possible that long path prevention techniques do not work at high pressures. Nevertheless, the standard scaling laws seem to be maintained down to these dimensions which are consistent with simulations that predict violation of scaling below 10 µm. Volt-ampere characteristics are also presented and compared with those of the standard size discharges.

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In this paper we present an analysis of time-and space-resolved development of several regimes of low-pressure dc discharges in argon. These regimes include low current Townsend discharge, oscillations and constrictions of discharge and high current diffuse glow discharges. Our work is based on ICCD recordings of the discharge structure, synchronized with current and voltage measurements. Measurements were made at three different pressure × electrode gap parameters (pd = 250, 150, 45 Pa cm), at three gaps (d = 1.1, 2.1, 3.1 cm). Special attention is given to radial effects and the influence of dielectric walls during the development of the glow discharge structure. We were able to show how the space time-resolved structure of the discharge can lead to an understanding of the physics of the initial stages of gas breakdown and formation of different regimes of low-pressure discharge. The results also give the basis for interpreting formative time delays associated with gas breakdown.

We have studied charged particle densities and fluxes in a customized industrial etch reactor, running in Ar/O 2 /c-C 4 F 8 gas mixtures at pressures in the region of 50 mTorr and driven by 2 and 27 MHz RF power, either separately or simultaneously. Independent control of ion flux and ion energy is the aim of using dual frequency plasmas. However, little experimental data exists regarding the charged particle dynamics in complex industrial gas mixtures. Negative ions could play an important role in this type of plasma. The presence of negative ions will modify the positive ion flux arriving at a surface, and they may even reach the surface and participate in etching. We have measured the electron density using a microwave hairpin resonator and the positive ion flux with a RF biased ion flux probe. The ratio of these two quantities, which depends on the negative ion fractions and other factors, is seen to vary strongly with gas chemistry, giving evidence for the presence of negative ions. Our results indicate high electronegativity for high cC 4 F 8 flow rates. We have also examined the effect of varying the 2 and 27.12 MHz RF powers on both the electron density and the positive ion flux. This allows us to estimate the effect of varying power on the negative ion density. In addition, ultraviolet cavity ring-down spectroscopy was used to measure the F − density directly (Booth et al 2006 Appl. Phys. Lett. 88 151502). This optical measurement was compared with the probe technique.