This paper challenges the universality of O.D. theory, arguing that it presents an incomplete model of organizational change. Two contrasting 'theories' of organization al change are compared and evaluated (the incremental and transformational theses) and also two contrasting methods of change: participation and coercion. All four approaches are seen as legitimate components of a differentiated contingency model of change. The model has implications for the choice of strategies for managing organizational change in differing circumstances and for the training of change agents.
To investigate the controversy between universal and contingent approaches to corporate change, a study was undertaken of 13 service sector organizations. The study used the Dunphy/Stace contingency model of organizational change strategies, developing measures to place the organizations within the model. Results indicate that universal models of change management are inadequate to describe the diversity of approaches actually used by these organizations. In particular, the traditional Organizational Development model is unrepresentative of how change in many contemporary organizations is actually made. The traditional OD model prescribes incremental change combined with a participative management style but most organizations in the study made rapid transformative change using a directive leadership style. The OD model is also inadequate as a prescriptive model because very different change strategies, some dramatically different from OD, resulted in successful financial performance. Four case studies are presented to illustrate how each of the major contingencies in the model can operate to create effective organizational performance.
Strategies for organizational change which are successful in one business era, and in one culture, may not necessarily be successful in another. Yet the evidence is that powerful espoused ideologies about how best to effect change often live on within organizations, well beyond their capacity to help sustain positive performance. The espoused ideal approach to change becomes a myth which clouds the ability of managers to analyze their environment incisively and to move against the prevailing logic of change in the organization. It is suggested in this paper that often the best moves in organizational change may be countercyclical-against the preferred ideologies of change in the organization. Managers therefore need good contingency maps and models of change, rather than fixed ideologies and recipes, and the courage to move against the trend. This is made all the more difficult by researchers and management writers, who describe, espouse, and normalize dominant, preferred "best practice" ideas of change without adequate reference to the changing business environment of the organization, or to the cultural specificity of their theories. It is a case of when "best espoused practice" may be worst practice.
᭹ This paper is concerned with how the customer experience needs to be viewed from a strategic perspective when businesses grapple with the important question of the extent to which and what type of information and communication technologies (ICT) might be used to take the business forward. ᭹ The paper introduces a framework and offers a methodology for diagnosing 'zones of customer opportunity'. This diagnostic could typically be used by decision-makers and managerial teams -working in partnership with heads of customer service and ICT specialists -to apply a business persective to consideration of adoption of emergent ICT capabilities. In the absence of such a diagnostic, there are tendencies for businesses uncritically to use turnkey proprietary tools of a generic nature or to emulate the approaches used by other businesses and competitors.᭹ The framework is built on earlier work by the authors, and represents a practical application of a research-based, grounded methodology which reflects the potential of ICT enablement in enhancing the customer experience, or the use of no technology at all. ᭹The diagnostic would most typically be used in strategic planning sessions, or on a more frequent basis where there are fast-moving changes to markets, products or services. ᭹In an era where ICT offers significant opportunities for businesses to re-think the means of relating with existing and new customers, the authors advocate active exploration of available and emerging technologies, but counsel against going a step too far and risk weakening or even fracturing the customer relationship.
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