The meta-analytic technique was used to synthesize experimental research findings on the relationship between level of teacher questioning and student achievement. Twenty studies on teachers' use of "higher" and "lower" cognitive questions were reviewed. Higher cognitive questions require pupils to manipulate information to create and support a response; lower cognitive questions call for verbatim recall or recognition of factual information. Effect sizes were computed to investigate the impact of program monitoring, experimental validity, and level of teacher questioning. Results show that gains in achievement can be expected when higher cognitive questions assume a predominant role during classroom instruction.

The Arizona Clinical Interview Rating Scale is examined for construct validity as an instrument to evaluate the interviewing techniques of medical students. Evidence was gathered in the areas of convergent and discriminant validity, sensitivity to change, internal consistency, and objectivity.

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The Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI) was examined using a modified version of the Sabers and Whitney model for construct validation. The SEI, Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale (CSCS), and Children's Social Desirability Scale (CSDS) were administered to 55 males and 50 females enrolled in six intact fifth-grade classes. Each student also received a teacher rating of self-concept using the Coopersmith Behavioral Academic Assessment Scale (BASE). Regression analyses indicated that the SEI has convergent validity with regard to the CSCS ( p < .01) and BASE ( p < .01), has discriminant validity with regard to the CSDS ( p > .05), is sensitive to differences in achievement level ( p < .01), and is internally consistent (coefficient alpha = .86). Intra-rater stability for the BASE ranged from .85 to .97; average inter-rater agreement was .86.

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