Cross-laminated timber (CLT) is a bio-based building material that enables rapid construction and buildings with low embodied energy. Despite its comparative maturity in European markets, relatively little information regarding process design and economics for the manufacture of cross-laminated timber is available in the literature. Two techno-economic analyses were conducted to quantify the mill-gate cost of cross-laminated timber. The cross-laminated timber manufacturing process was described, and costs were analyzed for two facility scales. Cross-laminated timber produced at the large-scale facility using lumber priced at an average value for the northwest United States has a minimum selling price of $536/m3. Sensitivity analyses were used to define the impact of plant size, asset utilization, lumber price, plant capital cost, material waste, and other variables on minimum selling price. The cost of cross laminated timber rises quickly when a facility is not fully utilized. The second-ranking cost controlling variable is lumber price, while energy prices have minimal influence. The price of cross laminated timber can be optimized by locating a facility near low-cost lumber. The lowest-price region analyzed was the southeast United States using Southern Pine, which reduced the cost of cross laminated timber to $518/m3.
A new concept is presented on how to set up the equations of complex fluid networks. This concept avoids the creation of large non-linear equation systems and hence leads to a very robust modeling approach while still being competitive in levels of performance. The concept has been implemented in Modelica and tested for the rapid pre-design of aircraft environmental control systems.
Threaded nails are used in wood construction because of their superior performance, but relatively few tests have been conducted on nails larger than 12d (3.76 mm diameter). Experience has suggested that threaded nail withdrawal design values are too conservative. The Forest Products Laboratory and Washington State University have been cooperatively characterizing the strength of threaded nails over a range of wood species and nail types. This paper focuses on the immediate withdrawal strength of annularly threaded nails in Douglas Fir and Spruce-Pine-Fir, helically threaded nails in Southern Pine, and smooth nails in Southern Pine and Spruce-Pine-Fir lumber. Average withdrawal strength of threaded nails was greater than that of smooth shank nails of the same diameter. In comparison of experimental withdrawal strength to existing design procedures for assigning allowable withdrawal strength design values, annular shank nails showed the greatest difference. Withdrawal strengths of nails from five different manufacturers were not significantly different. Comparisons of the effect of galvanizing on withdrawal strength were inconclusive.
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