An abundance of empirical evidence exists identifying a significant correlation between spatial ability and educational performance particularly in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Despite this evidence, a causal explanation has yet to be identified. Pertinent research illustrates that spatial ability can be developed and that doing so has positive educational effects. However, contention exists within the relevant literature concerning the explicit definition for spatial ability. There is therefore a need to define spatial ability relative to empirical evidence which in this circumstance relates to its factor structure. Substantial empirical evidence supports the existence of unique spatial factors not represented in modern frameworks. Further understanding such factors can support the development of educational interventions to increase their efficacy and related effects in STEM education. It may also lead to the identification of why spatial ability has such a significant impact on STEM educational achievement as examining more factors in practice can help in deducing which are most important. In light of this, a synthesis of the spatial factors offered within existing frameworks with those suggested within contemporary studies is presented to guide further investigation and the translation of spatial ability research to further enhance learning in STEM education.

This paper presents the response of the technology teacher education programmes at the University of Limerick to the assessment challenge created by the shift in philosophy of the Irish national curriculum from a craft-based focus to design-driven education. This study observes two first year modules of the undergraduate programmes that focused on the development of subject knowledge and practical craft skills. Broadening the educational experience and perspective of students to include design based aptitudes demanded a clear aligning of educational approaches with learning outcomes. As design is a complex iterative learning process it requires a dynamic assessment tool to facilitate and capture the process. Considering the critical role of assessment in the learning process, the study explored the relevance of individual student-defined assessment criteria and the validity of holistic professional judgement in assessing capability within a design activity. The kernel of the paper centres on the capacity of assessment criteria to change in response to how students align their work with evidence of capability. The approach also supported peer assessment, where student-generated performance ranks provided an insight into not only how effectively they evidenced capability but also to what extent their peers valued it. The study investigated the performance of 137 undergraduate teachers during an activity focusing on the development of design, processing and craft skills. The study validates the use of adaptive comparative judgement as a model of assessment by identifying a moderate to strong relationship with performance scores obtained by two different methods of assessment. The findings also present evidence of capability beyond the traditional measures. Level of engagement, diversity, and problem solving were also identified as significant results of the approach taken. The strength of this paper centres on the capacity of student-defined criterion assessment to evidence learning, and concludes by presenting a valid and reliable holistic assessment supported by comparative judgements.

Since first conceived, the concept of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has attracted much attention. Despite being lauded by educationalists as the unique knowledge base of teachers, research on the concept over the past 30 years has yet to result in a universally accepted definition being presented. Much of the contentions surrounding the lack of an agreed upon conception appear to have stemmed from difficulties in understanding the relationship between PCK, other areas of teacher knowledge, teacher beliefs, and enacted practice. This paper considers the application of PCK frameworks to design and technology (D&T) education, through an analysis of the nature of the discipline from an ontological and epistemological perspective and contemporary perspectives on the construct of PCK. It is theorised that the volition afforded to teachers in D&T through weakly framed subject boundaries negates the effective application of PCK frameworks, as teachers' beliefs have a greater impact on enacted practices. In an attempt to better understanding enacted practice in D&T education, the paper proposes a methodological framework centred on the interactions between teachers' beliefs and knowledge in the discipline, through synthesising the concept of amplifiers and filters of practice with the nature of D&T education. The proposed framework outlines the need to recognise individual teachers' conception of capability as a critical influence on enacted practice.

A core aim of contemporary science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education is the development of robust problem-solving skills. This can be achieved by fostering both discipline knowledge expertise and general cognitive abilities associated with problem solving. One of the most important cognitive abilities in STEM education is spatial ability however understandings of how students use this ability in practice are currently underdeveloped. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate how levels of spatial ability impacted both performance and approaches to problem solving. In the context of graphical education, selected due to its significant overlap with technological, mathematical and engineering knowledge, a repeated cross-sectional study design was implemented to gather longitudinal data of student approaches to problem solving. A battery of psychometric tests of spatial ability was administered to two cohorts and problem solving was examined through a variety of graphical problems. The findings illustrate a relationship between attaining higher levels of spatial ability and performance. Participants with lower levels of spatial ability evidenced the utilisation of models to a greater extend with a particular emphasis on models with the capacity to alleviate the need for spatial reasoning.

Educational assessment has profound effects on the nature and depth of learning that students engage in. Typically there are two core types discussed within the pertinent literature; criterion and norm referenced assessment. However another form, ipsative assessment, refers to the comparison between current and previous performance within a course of learning. This paper gives an overview of an ipsative approach to assessment that serves to facilitate an opportunity for students to develop personal constructs of capability and to provide a capacity to track competence based gains both normatively and ipsatively. The study cohort (n = 128) consisted of undergraduate students in a Design and Communication Graphics module of an Initial Technology Teacher Education programme. Four consecutive design assignments were designed to elicit core graphical skills and knowledge. An adaptive comparative judgment method was employed to rank responses to each assignment which were subsequently analysed from an ipsative perspective. The paper highlights the potential of this approach in developing students' epistemological understanding of graphical and technological education. Significantly, this approach demonstrates the capacity of ACJ to track performance over time and explores this relative to student ability levels in the context of conceptual design.