The clinical concept of psychopathy ("psychopathic personality") is generally considered to entail persistent behavioral deviancy in the company of emotional-interpersonal detachment. However, longstanding debates continue regarding the appropriate scope and boundaries of the concept. Here, we review alternative historic descriptions of the disorder together with empirical findings for the best-established assessment instruments in use with adolescents and youth as a basis for formulating an integrative, triarchic model of psychopathy. The essence of the triarchic model is that psychopathy encompasses three distinct phenotypic constructs: disinhibition, which reflects a general propensity toward problems of impulse control; boldness, which is defined as the nexus of social dominance, emotional resiliency, and venturesomeness; and meanness, which is defined as aggressive resource seeking without regard for others ("dysaffliated agency"). These differing phenotypic components are considered in terms of relevant etiologic and developmental pathways. The triarchic conceptualization provides a basis for reconciling and accommodating alternative descriptive accounts of psychopathy, and a framework for coordinating research on neurobiological and developmental processes contributing to varying manifestations of the disorder.

Gray's two‐factor learning theory postulates a behavioral activation system (BAS), a behavioral inhibition system (BIS), and a nonspecific arousal system receiving excitatory inputs from both the BAS and the BIS. The BAS initiates behavior in response to conditioned stimuli for reward (approach) or for relieving nonpunishment (active avoidance). The BIS, which is viewed as an anxiety system, inhibits behavior in response to cues for punishment (passive avoidance) or frustrative nonreward (extinction), and its activity is decreased by the anti‐anxiety drugs (alcohol, barbiturates, minor tranquilizers). Thus, the BIS is an arousal system which inhibits rather than energizes behavior. A review of the literature suggests that heart rate (HR) is strongly associated with activity of the BAS. This interpretation subsumes the previous findings of cardiac‐somatic coupling, incentive effects on HR, and increased HR in connection with active coping in the face of threat. Electrodermal activity (EDA), on the other hand, increases when there is an activation of the BIS. A consideration of these differing effects on HR and EDA permits a specification of conditions in which these two measures will or will not show directional fractionation. With this theoretical model it is possible to relate the clinical features of psychopathy to the psychophysiological data with the single assumption that primary psychopaths have a deficient BIS. As a result, they show normal approach, active avoidance, and HR, but they suffer from poor passive avoidance and extinction with reduced EDA in response to threatening stimuli.

The paper recommends an acceptable methodolog> for recording electrodermal activity which reflects a consensus of experts in the field. These recommendations are presented with a minimum of technical discussion in order to maximize their usefulness to investigators who are not specialists in this area.For most purposes, skin conductance (SC) is to be preferred over skin potential (SP). It is recommended that SC be recorded from palmar sites with silver-silver chloride electrodes and an electrode paste consisting of a sodium chloride electrolyte in a neutral ointment cream medium. The area of contact with the skin should be controlled and time allowed for stabilization ofthe skin-electrode paste interface. Electrode bias potentials and polarization should be monitored during use. Signal conditioning is achieved by the application of a constant 0.5 volt across the electrodes and measurement of the resultant current flow by amplifying the voltage developed across a small resistor in series with the skin. The measurement ofthe amplitude-or even the detection-of small responses requires some form of tonic level control, permitting an adjustment of the tonic level. A circuit is provided for signal conditioning and tonic levei control.SP can be recorded with the same electrodes and electrode paste, unless the results are to be related to the British work on SP level, in which case the original potassium chloride electrolyte in an agar medium should be used. SP recordings require that one of the electrodes be placed over an inactive reference site, preferably over the ulnar bone near the elbow. No external voltage is applied, but some form of tonic level control may be needed. Electrodes need to be checked for bias potentials but not polarization. DESCRIPTORS: Skin conductance measurement. Skin potential measurement, Electrodermal measurement.The investigator who wishes to record electrodermal activity is faced with a bewildering number of choices as to the methodology to be employed. In some cases the alternatives are equally acceptable, whereas in other cases a poor choice can produce invahd results. At the request of the Editor, David Shapiro, a committee was formed for the purpose of setting forth an acceptable methodology for recording electrodermal activity which reflects a consensus Address requests for reprints either to Don C. Fowles. Department of Psychology. The University of Iowa. Iowa City. Iowa 52242; or (for requests from Europe) to Peter H. Venables. Department of Psychology. University of York. Heslington. York. YUl 5DD. England. of experts in the field.' It is hoped that doing so will accomplish two purposes: 1) to provide guidance for those investigators who are not experts in electrodermal methodology, and 2) to foster some degree of standardization. This second purpose should not. however, be overemphasized, as it is not our intention to dictate a specific method to seasoned investigators who have good reasons for using other techniques. Nevertheless, some degree of standardization is desira...

The current zeitgeist strongly emphasizes genetic and biochemical approaches to psychopathology over psychological and psychobiological approaches. It is argued that a psychobiological model, involving a theory of motivation derived from the animal learning literature, offers an attractive theoretical bridge between neurochemical influences and the phenotypic features of psychiatric disorders. This model involves separate but interactive appetitive and aversive motivational systems that control behavioral activation (appetitive) and inhibition (aversive). Ways in which these motivational constructs can be relevant to psychopathology are discussed for anxiety, psychopathy, childhood disorders, depression, mania, drug abuse, and schizophrenia. Because of this general application, motivational constructs offer an attractive theoretical framework for understanding psychopathology. Application of the motivational theory to psychophysiology suggested that heart rate may be significantly influenced by appetitive motivation. A series of studies have shown that heart rate during performance of a continuous motor task does respond to appetitive motivation in the form of performance‐contingent monetary incentives, but does not respond to aversive stimulation in the form of failure feedback. Nonspecific skin conductance fluctuations have not responded to appetitive motivation in this paradigm, but this failure could possibly be due to ceiling effects. Nonspecific skin conductance fluctuations do respond to aversive stimulation in other contexts. These findings suggest that under the right circumstances appetitive motivation can be assessed via heart rate and aversive motivation via skin conductance.

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The concept of psychopathy refers to a pattern of chronic antisocial behavior and personality features, such as emotional detachment, lovelessness, and guiltlessness, attributable in part to a temperament deficit. Historically, that deficit has been seen as a low reactivity to fear, but recent research has documented a second temperament deficit in adults that involves poor emotional and behavioral control. Both pathways are found in the child psychopathology literature, pointing to multifactorial developmental pathways from childhood to adult psychopathy.

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