Abstract:Megacities have frequently received a disproportionate amount of attention over other sizes of cities in recent discourse on urban sustainability. In this article, the authors argue that a focus on smaller and medium-sized cities is crucial to achieving substantial progress towards more sustainable urban development, not only because they are home to at least a quarter of the world's population but because they also offer great potential for sustainable transformations. In principle, their size allows for flexibility in terms of urban expansion, adoption of "green" travel modes, and environmental protection. At the same time, smaller and medium-sized cities often have fewer resources to implement new transport measures and can be more vulnerable to fluctuations in the world economy. This article critically reviews the potential role and impact of nine commonly considered options for sustainable urban transport in cities in developing countries: (1) road infrastructure; (2) rail-based public transport; (3) road-based public transport; (4) support for non-motorized travel modes; (5) technological solutions; (6) awareness-raising campaigns; (7) pricing mechanisms; (8) vehicle access restrictions; and (9) control of land-uses. Drawing on international research and examples of policies to reduce the environmental impacts of transport in urban areas, this article identifies some key lessons for sustainable urban transport in smaller and medium-sized cities in developing countries. These lessons are certainly not always identical to those for megacities in the global south. OPEN ACCESSSustainability 2015, 7 7785

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IntroductionOne of the criticisms sometimes made about empirical studies concerned with the relationships between land use and travel patterns is that the socioeconomic dimension is excluded. Empirical research, for example, suggests that higher densities are associated with less travel, but this could be a consequence of the variation in income (or some other socioeconomic characteristic) with density, rather than the effect of land use per se. In this paper I examine the relationships between land use, socioeconomic characteristics, and travel patterns. I identify some of the main land-use and socioeconomic characteristics that affect travel patterns and discuss whether there is the potential for land-use planning policies to reduce travel. The paper is based on extensive analysis of both national and local travel survey data in Britain, exploring relationships between land use, socioeconomic factors, and travel patterns.2 Interactions between land use, socioeconomic characteristics, and travel patterns Over the last few decades there has been a wide range of research concerning the interaction between land-use patterns (1) and travel [see Stead and Marshall (2001) for a critical review of the research from 1980 onwards]. This research has resulted in a wide range of literature concerning interactions between land use and travel patterns. However, the identification of relationships between land-use characteristics and travel patterns is complicated by the fact that different land-use characteristics are often associated with different socioeconomic factors, and that socioeconomic characteristics may also affect travel patterns (see Stead et al, 2000). The variation in socioeconomic characteristics increases the difficulty in establishing the precise relationships between land-use characteristics and travel patterns, and adds complexity to the comparison of travel patterns in different areas. It is also possible that there may be interactions between land-use and socioeconomic characteristics, adding further complexity to Abstract. In this paper I extend the debate about land use and urban form. I contend that many empirical studies that have examined the relationships between land use and travel patterns have omitted to consider the socioeconomic dimension, leading to simplistic views about land use and travel. I report the results of a study into the relationships between land use, socioeconomic characteristics, and travel patterns by using data from national and local travel surveys in Britain. The results of the study show that the variation in travel patterns often owes more to socioeconomic reasons that to land-use characteristics. However, land-use planning may still have a significant effect on influencing travel patterns.

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Assumptions about the effects of various land-use characteristics on travel patterns have found their way into diverse concepts of planning and design, such as the compact city and neighbourhood-design principles. In general, these concepts aim at reducing travel distances and reducing car-travel speed, as it is assumed that as travel distances are shorter, individuals will travel less, and the relative competitive position of slower modes is increased. Although some literature supports the link between land use and travel behaviour, for the greater part limited effects have been concluded, whereas in others it has been concluded that there is virtually no effect. We argue that the effects fall short of the expectations advocated by the land-use concepts, because of shortcomings behind assumptions concerning the relationships between land use and travel behaviour. We argue that utility-based and activity-based theories add some extra insights. Various behavioural responses in terms of travel-time changes are possible, depending on whether travel time is minimised, benefits maximised, or activity patterns optimised. It is concluded that the contribution of compact urban designs to reduction on travel may not be as straightforward as is suggested by their advocates. In any case, a simplified distance-oriented and trip-oriented approach is unable to examine complex behaviour, and a broader framework of space and time is needed.