Objective: Motivation seems to be a fundamental indicator of long-term physical exercise adherence. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) argues that social environment plays a central role in the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, which might directly affect the quality of one's motivation. Individuals who appear to be more self-determined tend to persist longer at certain behaviors. Therefore, this body of work intends to analyze the relationship between motivational variables and behavioral outcomes in the exercise context, having as theoretical background the Self-Determination Theory.Methods: This systematic review was conducted through an electronic search on Web of Science, PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and PsycINFO. Data such as instruments, main predictors and results were collected from studies published between 1985 and 2018. A total of 35 empirical studies were considered for a detailed analysis.Results: Results showed the relevance of autonomy support performed by exercise professionals, as well as the major contribution that these behaviors have toward the satisfaction of basic psychological needs, besides the inherent benefits of developing more autonomous regulations. According to the literature, few studies have analyzed interpersonal thwarting behavior and the way this relates to basic psychological needs' frustration. Nether less, there seems to be a negative relationship between less self-determined regulations and exercise practice.Conclusion: Despite the existence of numerous cross-sectional studies that demonstrate positive correlations between SDT and behavioral outcomes in the exercise context, longitudinal research that analyzes all six dimensions of interpersonal behaviors and their relationship with persistence and adherence to exercise proves to be crucial. However, according to this review, interventions based on SDT appear to be fundamental when it comes to promote the maintenance of a long-term exercise practice.

Objective The present study aimed to examine the bright and dark sides of motivation, based on self‐determination theory, as predictors of enjoyment, intention to continue exercising, and exercise persistence. In addition, we analyzed the mediation role of each variable and tested the model invariance between male and female exercisers. Methods A total of 575 gym exercisers (female = 230) aged between 18 and 65 years (M = 34.07; SD = 11.47) participated in this study. All participants had at least 6 months of regular exercise practice; exercise frequency of the participants ranged from 2 to 7 sessions per week (M = 3.52; SD = 1.28) and training sessions lasted approximately 30 and 120 minutes (M = 61.54; SD = 17.64). Participants completed a multisection questionnaire assessing interpersonal behaviors, basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration, behavioral regulations, enjoyment, and intentions to continue exercising. Exercise persistence was assessed 6 months after initial assessment using gym computer system attendance records. Several analyses, namely, confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling, serial mediation analysis, and structural invariance testing, were performed to increase theoretical and empirical knowledge. Results Positive associations were observed among the bright side of motivation, enjoyment, intention to continue exercising, and persistence. On the other hand, the dark side of motivation was negatively associated with the bright side constructs, enjoyment, intention, and exercise persistence. Both measurement [χ2(370) = 1496.708, χ2/df = 4.05; B‐S P < .001, CFI = 0.907, TLI = 0.901, SRMR = 0.056, RMSEA = 0.073 (CI 90% = 0.063, 0.083)] and structural models [χ2(393) = 2484.994, χ2/df = 6.323; B‐S P < .001, CFI = 0.908, TLI = 0.900, SRMR = 0.075, RMSEA = 0.071 (CI 90% = 0.067, 0.075)] displayed acceptable fit to the data. The results also showed that basic psychological needs satisfaction, autonomous motivation, enjoyment, and intention to continue exercising were significant mediators. However, enjoyment had the highest effect on exercise persistence. In addition, structural model invariance was confirmed between male and female exercisers. Conclusion Motivational determinants have implications for predicting emotional, cognitive, and behavior‐related outcomes. Individuals should perceive exercise instructors as supportive and exercising as a fun activity to endorse long‐term exercise persistence.

This study has as prime objective to analyze the psychometric properties of the Behavioral Regulation Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-3) in a sample of Portuguese exercisers and invariance across gender. Two independent samples (448 calibration; 374 validation), aged between 16 and 78 years (M = 40.29; SD = 16.24), of both gender, (495 female; 327 male) were enrolled in this study. The results show that the original model (six factors; 24 items) did not fit to the data in a satisfactory way (χ2 = 977.49; df = 237; B-S p < 0.001; SRMR = 0.07; NNFI = 0.80; CFI = 0.83; RMSEA = 0.08; 90% CI = 0.08–0.09). After removing six items (one for each factor), the model (six factors; 18 items) adjustment improved in a satisfactory way in both samples: calibration (χ2 = 331.86; df = 120; B-S p < 0.001; SRMR = 0.06; NNFI = 0.91; CFI = 0.93; RMSEA = 0.06; 90% CI 0.06–0.07) and validation (χ2 = 254.08; df = 120; B-S p < 0.001; SRMR = 0.04; NNFI = 0.93; CFI = 0.95; RMSEA = 0.06; 90% CI = 0.05–0.06). Results also showed model invariance across gender (ΔCFI ≤ 0.01). The Portuguese version of BREQ-3 (six factors; 18 items) is a valid and reliable measurement instrument to measure behavior regulation underlying self-determination theory in the exercise domain. However, the evidence also indicated that additional studies are needed to address the fragilities of the original model (six factors; 24 items).

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is amongst motivational frameworks the most popular and contemporary approach to human motivation, being applied in the last decades in several domains, including sport, exercise and physical education (PE). Additionally, Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) has presented evidence of how contextual factors may influence student's behavior in this particular context. The main purpose of this study was to analyze the motivational climate created by the teacher in the classroom, students' satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs (BPN), and how their behavioral regulation could explain PE grades and intention to practice sports in the future. Method: A total of 618 students (290 female; 328 male) from the 6 th to the 9 th school level, aged between 10 and 18 years (M = 13.3; SD = 1.7) participated in this study. The following surveys were used for the proposed variables: Learning and Performance Orientations in Physical Education Classes Questionnaire (LAPOPECQ); the Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNESp); and the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOCp). Intentions to practice sport/ physical activity in the future were assessed through a single item. Students' PE grade was obtained through his/her teacher final assessment. Structural Equation Analysis was performed via AMOS 23.0. Results: After analyzing modification indices and model adjustment, the final model emerged: learning climate > BPN > autonomous motivation > intentions/PE grade. Results interpretation seems to indicate that i) the satisfaction of BPN are influenced by motivational climate (i.e., learning climate), ii) the individuals' motivation is influenced by the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs (i.e., particularly competence), and iii) the motivational regulations have direct and significant effects with intention to practice sports outside school in the future and PE grades. Discussion & Conclusion: The main results showed that a climate oriented for learning has a positive impact on basic psychological needs satisfaction of students. However, only competence satisfaction had a significant positive relationship with students' autonomous motivation, which in turn had

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The aim of the present research is to examine the factor structure of the Interpersonal Behavior Questionnaire (IBQ), and the Interpersonal Behavior Questionnaire Self (IBQ-Self), two scales developed for the purpose of measuring supportive and thwarting interpersonal behaviors. Structural equation modeling was used to examine the psychometric proprieties, the nomological validity with the basic needs' satisfaction and frustration as well as the measurement invariance between gender, and differences across latent means. For the IBQ, 837 Portuguese gym members aged between 18 to 63 years old (M = 34.58; SD = 11.35) participated in this study. They had been practicing physical exercise for about 43.00 ± 37.00 months. For IBQ-Self, 612 trainers, with a professional experience that ranged from 12 to 492 months (M = 88.54; SD = 77.89), participated in this study. The analysis revealed that both scales had good fit, achieving convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, they show acceptable internal consistency and invariance between gender. Nomological validity displayed projected results, according to theoretical and empirical literature. Regarding analysis of the psychometric proprieties, IBQ and IBQ-Self can be applied to Portuguese exercisers and exercise physiologist to measure perceived behaviors from others and self-reported behaviors, respectively.

This study examined the motivational determinants of athletes perceived effort in football considering the four-stage motivational sequence at the contextual level proposed by Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: task-involving climate, basic psychological needs, self-determined motivation (SDM), and perceived effort. Additionally, SEM multi-group analysis across different age-groups (U15, U17, U19, and U21 years) and serial mediation of basic psychological needs (BPNs) and SDM on the task-involving motivational climate and the perceived effort were also analyzed. Two independent samples of male football athletes (N = 403, N = 403), aged 13–20 years were enrolled in this study. The results support the adequacy of the structural model in explaining the perceived effort of football atheltes in all samples under analysis, and was invariant across U17, U19, and U21. However, it was not invariant across U15 and U17, U19 and U21. Furthermore, results from the serial mediation showed significant indirect effects in all samples, supporting self-determination theoretical assumptions, reinforcing the importance of BPNs satisfaction and behavioral regulation in the relation in analysis. The results show that when coaches promote a task-involving climate, the BPNs satisfaction of athletes improves. This climate will facilitate the regulation of their behaviors toward more autonomous forms of motivation, with positive outcomes in the athletes perceived effort.

The aim of this study was to translate and validate the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale for Portuguese exercisers. In addition, we sought to analyze gender invariance. We collected data from two independent samples of Portuguese respondents—a calibration sample with 316 participants and a validation sample with 632 participants. Results from confirmatory factor analysis supported the original six-factor model in both the calibration sample, χ2(237) = 471.814, χ2/ df = 1.99; B–S p < .001, Comparative Fit Index = .935, Tucker–Lewis Index =.924, standard mean root square residual = .047, root mean square error of approximation = .057 (90% confidence interval = [.050, .065]), and the validation sample, χ2(237) = 571.796, χ2/ df = 2.41; B–S p < .001, Comparative Fit Index = .948, Tucker–Lewis Index = .940, standard mean root square residual = .038, root mean square error of approximation = .047 (90% confidence interval = [.042, .052]). Moreover, our analysis revealed acceptable internal consistency, convergent and discriminant validity of the translated version, and invariance between the two samples and between genders, as differences across latent means showed that magnitude effects were trivial between samples and between male and female exercisers. These results support the use of the adapted scale among both male and female exercisers.