The present study investigated lead effects on gill morphology, hematocrit, blood sodium, glucose, lipids, protein, and cholesterol of Prochilodus lineatus exposed to two sublethal lead concentrations for 96 h. Preliminary series of short-term static toxicity tests were run to determine LC 50 (96 h) of lead in P. lineatus, which was 95 mg Pb.L -1. Therefore, lead concentrations tested in the sublethal experiments were 24 and 71 mg Pb.L -1 , which correspond to 25% and 75% of the LC 50 (96 h), respectively. Gills of P. lineatus exposed to both lead concentrations during 96 h presented a higher occurrence of histopathological lesions such as epithelial lifting, hyperplasia, and lamellar aneurism. P. lineatus did not show significant alterations in hematocrit during exposure to both lead concentrations. Fish exposed to the highest lead concentration showed a significant decrease in Na + plasma concentration after 48 h, possibly reflecting a sodium influx rate decrease. P. lineatus exposed to both lead concentrations presented a "classical general adaptation syndrome to stress", as hyperglycemia associated with lowered lipids and proteins was reported. Stressresponse magnitude was dose-dependent. While the response to the lowest lead concentration might represent adaptation, the highest concentration seems to characterize exhaustion.Key words: lead, gill histopathology, Prochilodus lineatus, plasma sodium, stress response. , que correspondem a 25% e 75%, respectivamente, da CL 50 (96 h). As brânquias de P. lineatus expostos a ambas as concentrações de chumbo apresentaram maior incidência de lesões histopatológicas, como elevação epitelial, hiperplasia e aneurisma lamelar. P. lineatus não apresentou alterações significativas no hematócrito durante a exposição a ambas as concentrações de chumbo. Peixes expostos a 71 mg Pb.L -1 apresentaram decréscimo significativo do Na + plasmático após 48 h, o que pode estar se refletindo na redução das taxas de influxo desse íon. P. lineatus expostos a ambas as concentrações de chumbo apresentaram resposta clássica ao estresse, como verificado pela hiperglicemia associada ao decréscimo dos lipídeos e proteínas plasmáticas. A magnitude da resposta ao estresse foi dose-dependente. A resposta apresentada na concentração mais baixa representa um processo adaptativo, enquanto na maior concentração caracteriza a exaustão. RESUMOPalavras-chave: chumbo, histopatologia branquial, Prochilodus lineatus, sódio plasmático, resposta ao estresse.

The adsorption of amino acids on minerals and their condensation under conditions that resemble those of prebiotic earth is a well studied subject. However, which amino acids should be used in these experiments is still an open question. The main goal of this review is to attempt to answer this question. There were two sources of amino acids for the prebiotic earth: (1) exogenous -- meaning that the amino acids were synthesized outside the earth and delivered to our planet by interplanetary dust particles (IDPs), meteorites, comets, etc. and (2) endogenous -- meaning that they were synthesized on earth in atmospheric mixtures, hydrothermal vents, etc. For prebiotic chemistry studies, the use of a mixture of amino acids from both endogenous and exogenous sources is suggested. The exogenous contribution of amino acids to this mixture is very different from the average composition of proteins, and contains several non-protein amino acids. On the other hand, the mixture of amino acids from endogenous sources is seems to more closely resemble the amino acid composition of terrestrial proteins.

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Minerals more readily adsorb amino acids with charged R groups than uncharged R groups, so that the incorporation of amino acids with charged R groups into peptides would be more frequent than for amino acids with uncharged R groups. However, 74% of the amino acids in the proteins of modern organisms contain uncharged R groups. Thus, what could have been the mechanisms that produced peptides/proteins with more amino acids with uncharged R groups than precursors with charged R groups? Should we expect the composition of amino acids adsorbed on minerals to be similar to those of present proteins? Was the adsorption of amino acids on minerals important for the origin of life? The lipid world offers an alternative view of origin of life. Liposomes contributed to elongation of peptides as well as select hydrophobic amino acids and peptides. These experiments could be showing the mechanism, which hydrophobic amino acids have been selected. However, liposomes have no influence on the stereoselectivity in the oligomerization of amino acids. In the present paper, several other mechanisms are also discussed that could produce peptides with a greater proportion of amino acids with uncharged R groups.

tein is used in several areas such as clinical analysis, food science and technology, biochemistry, protein chemistry, physiology. Five spectrophotometric methods are mostly used: biuret, Lowry, Bradford, Smith and UV absorption. In this review a general overview of these methods is presented (interferences, applications); other methodologies are also discussed.Keywords: protein; spectrophotometry; protein analysis. DIVULGAÇÃO INTRODUÇÃOO desenvolvimento de metodologias e estudos comparativos de metodologias espectrofotométricas para a determinação de proteínas totais sempre foram de grande interesse para profissionais, tanto ligados à indústria de alimentos, laboratórios de análises clínicas, como para pesquisadores de diversas áreas. Apesar de os profissionais serem de diferentes áreas e, portanto, com objetivos diferentes, observamos que os questionamentos são sempre os mesmos: Quais são os principais interferentes no método que estou usando? Qual é o método mais adequado para meu caso? Qual é o princípio envolvido no método que estou usando?Esta revisão, portanto, tem por objetivo abordar diversos aspectos dos métodos espectrofotométricos utilizados para a determinação de proteínas totais em diferentes meios.As proteínas desempenham papéis extremamente importantes, na maioria dos processos biológicos, atuando como enzimas, hormônios, neurotransmissores, transportadores através das membranas celulares e outros 1,2 .O desenvolvimento de metodologias para determinar proteínas tem, cada vez mais, se tornado de fundamental relevância em várias áreas do conhecimento, como por exemplo, em análises clínicas 1 , favorecendo o diagnóstico de certas doenças correlacionadas com a alteração da quantidade de proteínas nos fluidos biológicos; em nutrição animal 3 , ressaltando o aproveitamento racional de nutrientes; em problemas relacionados à nutrição humana 1,4,5 , como obesidade, anorexia nervosa, desnutrição, devendo as dietas apresentar teor balanceado de proteínas; em tecnologia e ciências de alimentos 6 , objetivando o aproveitamento racional da matéria prima e o melhoramento dos produtos novos e já existentes; em ecologia 7 , relacionando o comportamento alimentar com a quantidade de proteína ingerida dos alimentos, favorecendo o entendimento dos vários aspectos da vida dos animais silvestres; e na área de química de proteínas objetivando purificar novas proteínas e enzimas 8 .Estas são apenas algumas das mais importantes aplicações analíticas para metodologias de determinação de proteínas totais; obviamente, existem muitas outras de grande relevância.Os métodos para a determinação da concentração de proteí-nas totais são muito variados, no entanto, as metodologias mais utilizadas são as espectrofotométricas no ultra-violeta e no visível (UV-Vis). MÉTODOS ESPECTROFOTOMÉTRICOS MAIS UTILIZADOS PARA A DETERMINAÇÃO DE PROTEÍNAS TOTAISMuitos métodos espectrofotométricos, ao longo dos anos, têm sido propostos para a determinação de proteínas totais, mas não existe uma metodologia considerada de uso universal para todos ...

Amino acids and nucleic acid bases are very important for the living organisms. Thus, their protection from decomposition, selection, pre-concentration and formation of biopolymers are important issues for understanding the origin of life on the Earth. Minerals could have played all of these roles. This paper discusses several aspects involving the adsorption of amino acids and nucleic acid bases onto minerals under conditions that could have been found on the prebiotic Earth; in particular, we recommend the use of minerals, amino acids, nucleic acid bases and seawater ions in prebiotic chemistry experiments. Several experiments involving amino acids, nucleic acid bases, minerals and seawater ions are also suggested, including: (a) using well-characterized minerals and the standardization of the mineral synthesis methods; (b) using primary chondrite minerals (olivine, pyroxene, etc.) and clays modified with metals (Cu, Fe, Ni, Mo, Zn, etc.); (c) determination of the possible products of decomposition due to interactions of amino acids and nucleic acid bases with minerals; (d) using minerals with more organophilic characteristics; (e) using seawaters with different concentrations of ions (i.e. Na + , Ca 2 + , Mg 2 + , SO 4 2 − and Cl − ); (f) using non-protein amino acids (AIB, α-ABA, β-ABA, γ-ABA and β-Ala and g) using nucleic acid bases other than adenine, thymine, uracil and cytosine. These experiments could be useful to clarify the role played by minerals in the origin of life on the Earth.

In the present paper, the adsorption of amino acids (Ala, Met, Gln, Cys, Asp, Lys, His) on clays (bentonite, kaolinite) was studied at different pH (3.00, 6.00, 8.00). The amino acids were dissolved in seawater, which contains the major elements. There were two main findings in this study. First, amino acids with a charged R group (Asp, Lys, His) and Cys were adsorbed on clays more than Ala, Met and Gln (uncharged R groups). However, 74% of the amino acids in the proteins of modern organisms have uncharged R groups. These results raise some questions about the role of minerals in providing a prebiotic concentration mechanism for amino acids. Several mechanisms are also discussed that could produce peptide with a greater proportion of amino acids with uncharged R groups. Second, Cys could play an important role in prebiotic chemistry besides participating in the structure of peptides/proteins. The FT-IR spectra showed that the adsorption of amino acids on the clays occurs through the amine group. However, the Cys/clay interaction occurs through the sulfhydryl and amine groups. X-ray diffractometry showed that pH affects the bentonite interlayer, and at pH 3.00 the expansion of Cys/bentonite was greater than that of the samples of ethylene glycol/bentonite saturated with Mg. The Mössbauer spectrum for the sample with absorbed Cys showed a large increase ( approximately 20%) in ferrous ions. This means that Cys was able to partially reduce iron present in bentonite. This result is similar to that which occurs with aconitase where the ferric ions are reduced to Fe 2.5.

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