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We share an interest in language. We want to understand it, its origins, structure, functions, use, acquisition, instruction, and change. We seek causes for observed effects. Scientific studies of language representation and competence and of language acquisition and use are complementary. Yet these two theoretical enterprises have traditionally been kept distinct, with models of representation (property theories) focusing on static competence, and models of acquisition (transition theories) and use focusing on dynamic process and performance. This Special Issue is motivated by the belief that our interests in language can better be furthered when it is conceived of as the emergent properties of a multi-agent, complex, dynamic, adaptive system, a conception that usefully conflates a property theory with a transition theory. L2 AREAS OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE Consider the history of research in the following key areas of Applied Linguistics, and some morals of each quest. Case 1: Interlanguage developmental sequences: The morpheme order studies In the 25 years following Brown's (1973) classic descriptions of developmental sequences of first language acquisition, the 'morpheme order studies' investigated the order of L2 acquisition of the English grammatical functors, progressive-ing, auxiliary be, plurals , possessive-s, articles a, an, the, third person singular presents , copula, and regular pasted. These studies show remarkable commonality in the orders of acquisition of these functors across the interlanguage of a wide range of learners of English as a second language, enough for Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) to conclude that they were sufficiently consistent in their general findings for their commonalities not to be ignored: as the hunter put it, 'There is something moving in the bushes'

Language has a fundamentally social function. Processes of human interaction along with domain-general cognitive processes shape the structure and knowledge of language. Recent research in the cognitive sciences has demonstrated that patterns of use strongly affect how language is acquired, is used, and changes. These processes are not independent of one another but are facets of the same complex adaptive system (CAS). Language as a CAS involves the following key features: The system consists of multiple agents (the speakers in the speech community) interacting with one another.

This book introduces complexity theory as a metaphor or supra-theory for systems in applied linguistics. Change and heterogeneity are central to complexity theory and to the resonances that we find with applied linguistics systems. Principles of complexity theory are explained, drawing on work in the biological, psychological and social sciences. These principles include descriptions of change over time (system dynamics) that work for all levels and scales: movement from temporary and relative stability through adaptive behaviours to the emergence of new patterns not amenable to reductive explanations. Seeing applied systems as complex, adaptive and dynamic opens up new conceptualisations of properties and activities, enables new questions about how people use, learn and teach languages, and demands new ways of investigating behaviour and development.

Agency has attracted considerable attention, especially of late. Nevertheless, perceptions of language learners as nonagentive persist. In this article the Douglas Fir Group's call for a transdisciplinary perspective is heeded in a Complex Dynamic Systems Theory's (CDST) conceptualization of agency. It is suggested that CDST maintains the structure–agency complementarity while bringing to the fore the relational and emergent nature of agency. Coordination dynamics is identified as a possible mechanism for the phylogenetic and ontogenetic emergence of agency. CDST further characterizes agency as spatially–temporally situated. It can be achieved and changed through iteration and co‐adaptation. It is also multidimensional and heterarchical. In this era of posthumanism, an issue that is also taken up is whether it is only humans who have agency. The article then discusses educational practices that could support learner agency. Finally, the article closes with a discussion of agency and ethical action.

Second language acquisition researchers (Dulay and Burt 1973, 1974a; Bailey, Madden and Krashen 1974) have claimed there exists an acquisition order of English morphemes to which ESL learners, despite their different ages and language backgrounds, adhere. Thus far, however, an explanation for the occurrence of such a morpheme order has eluded researchers. A study by this author was designed to yield data which would hopefully suggest a reason for the reported morpheme sequence. After analyzing the data in light of possible explanations, a significant correlation was found between the common morpheme difficulty order of the learners and the frequency of occurrence of these morphemes in adult native‐speaker speech.