Background Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is an l-tryptophan metabolite with neuromodulatory activities, regulating the release of neurotransmitters such as glutamate, dopamine (DA), and acetylcholine (Ach). Dysregulation of the kynurenine pathway has been associated with neurodegenerative, neurological, and psychological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia. Methods The antidepressant-like effects of KYNA were studied with a modified mouse forced swimming test (FST), and the potential involvement of the serotonin (SER), norepinephrine, DA, Ach, N-methyl-d-aspartate, or gamma-aminobutyric acid subunit A (GABA A) receptors in its antidepressant-like effect was assayed by modified combination mouse FST. In combination studies, the mice were pretreated with the respective receptor antagonist, cyproheptadine (CPH), phenoxybenzamine, yohimbine, propranolol, haloperidol (HPD), atropine, MK-801, or bicuculline (BCL). Results The FST revealed that KYNA reversed immobility, climbing, and swimming times, suggesting the antidepressant-like effects of KYNA. Furthermore, the combination studies showed that CPH prevented the antidepressant-like effects of KYNA on immobility, climbing, and swimming times, whereas HPD reduced climbing time and BCL influenced immobility and climbing times and prevented the effects of KYNA on swimming time. Conclusions The results demonstrated, for the first time, the presence of antidepressant-like effects of KYNA in a modified mouse FST. Furthermore, modified combination FST showed that the antidepressant-like actions of KYNA strongly interacted with 5-hydroxytryptamine type 2 SER-ergic receptors, weakly interacted with D 2 , D 3 , D 4 DA-ergic receptors, and interacted moderately with GABA A receptors.

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is an endogenous tryptophan (Trp) metabolite known to possess neuroprotective property. KYNA plays critical roles in nociception, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation. A lower level of KYNA is observed in patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases or psychiatric disorders such as depression and autism spectrum disorders, whereas a higher level of KYNA is associated with the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Little is known about the optimal concentration for neuroprotection and the threshold for neurotoxicity. In this study the effects of KYNA on memory functions were investigated by passive avoidance test in mice. Six different doses of KYNA were administered intracerebroventricularly to previously trained CFLP mice and they were observed for 24 h. High doses of KYNA (i.e., 20–40 μg/2 μL) significantly decreased the avoidance latency, whereas a low dose of KYNA (0.5 μg/2 μL) significantly elevated it compared with controls, suggesting that the low dose of KYNA enhanced memory function. Furthermore, six different receptor blockers were applied to reveal the mechanisms underlying the memory enhancement induced by KYNA. The series of tests revealed the possible involvement of the serotonergic, dopaminergic, α and β adrenergic, and opiate systems in the nootropic effect. This study confirmed that a low dose of KYNA improved a memory component of cognitive domain, which was mediated by, at least in part, four systems of neurotransmission in an animal model of learning and memory.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disease and the most common cause of dementia. The etiology of AD is not entirely clear and despite the increasing knowledge regarding the pathomechanism, no effective disease-modifying therapy is yet available. Astrocytes earlier presumed to serve merely supportive roles for the neuronal network, have recently been shown to play an active role in the synaptic dysfunction, impairment of homeostasis, inflammation as well as excitotoxicity in relation to AD pathology. This review focuses on the pathomechanism of AD with special attention to the role of the astrocytes, excitotoxicity and the alterations in the kynurenine metabolism in the development of the disease. The correction of the neuroprotective/neurotoxic imbalance in the kynurenine pathway may represent a novel target for pharmaceutical interventions in dementia related to neurodegenerative disorders.

The aging process clearly increases the demand for antioxidant protection, especially in the brain, involving that provided by α-tocopherol (αT). However, little is known about the age-related changes in brain αT levels and the influencing effect of gender on it, in human or murine samples as well. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was to detect age-, gender- and region-specific changes in αT concentrations in mouse brain tissue and to assess the influencing effect of plasma αT levels on it. Female and male C57BL/6 mice at the ages of 6, 16 and 66 weeks (n = 9 in each group) were applied. αT levels were determined with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) from the striatum, cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, brainstem and from plasma samples. A detailed validation process was carried out for the applied HPLC method as well. The results demonstrated that brain αT levels significantly increased in the striatum, cortex, and hippocampus with aging in both genders, but in a more pronounced way in females with an increasing magnitude of this difference. In case of the cerebellum, a moderate elevation could be detected only in females, whereas in case of the brainstem there was no significant change in αT level. With regard to plasma samples, no clear trend could be identified. The current study is the first to present age-dependent gender-specific changes in αT level in certain brain regions of the C57Bl/6 mouse strain, and may provide meaningful information for future therapeutic studies targeting aging-related processes.

Several studies supported an increased vulnerability of males regarding Parkinson's disease (PD) and its animal models, the background of which has not been exactly revealed, yet. In addition to hormonal differences, another possible factor behind that may be a female-predominant increase in endogenous striatal alpha-tocopherol (αT) level with aging, even significant at 16 weeks of age, previously demonstrated by the authors. Accordingly, the aim of the current study was the assessment whether this difference in striatal αT concentration may contribute to the above-mentioned distinct vulnerability of genders to nigrostriatal injury. Female and male C57Bl/6 mice at the age of 16 weeks were injected with 12 mg/kg body weight 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) 5 times at 2 h intervals or with saline. The levels of some biogenic amines (striatum) and αT (striatum and plasma) were determined by validated high performance liquid chromatography methods. Although the results proved previous findings, i.e., striatal dopamine decrease was less pronounced in females following MPTP treatment, and striatal αT level was significantly higher in female mice, the correlation between these 2 variables was not significant. Surprisingly, MPTP treatment did not affect striatal αT concentrations, but significantly decreased plasma αT levels without differences between genders. The current study, examining the possible role of elevated αT in female C57Bl/6 mice behind their decreased sensitivity to MPTP intoxication for the first time, was unable to demonstrate any remarkable connection between these 2 variables. These findings may further confirm that αT does not play a major role against neurotoxicity induced by MPTP.

Previously, we have shown that the N-methyl d-aspartate (NMDA)-receptor antagonist kynurenic acid (KYNA) and its analogue KYNA1 do not bind directly to mu, kappa and delta opioid receptors in vitro. On the other hand, chronic administration of KYNA and KYNA1 resulted in region (cortex vs striatum) and opioid receptor-type specific alterations in G-protein activation of mouse brain homogenates. Here we describe for the first time the acute effect of KYNA and KYNA1 on opioid receptor function with the possible involvement of the NMDA receptor. The acute 30minute in vivo KYNA1 and KYNA treatments altered opioid receptor G-protein signaling or ligand potency depending on the opioid receptor type and brain region (rat cortex vs striatum) using [S]GTPγS binding assays. Pretreatment with the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 impaired or reversed the effects of KYNA1 and KYNA. These results suggest an NMDA receptor mediated effect. After acute 30minute treatment HPLC measurements revealed a similar KYNA1 and a higher KYNA plasma concentration compared to cerebrospinal fluid concentrations. Finally, KYNA, KYNA1 and MK-801 showed comparable results in opioid receptor G-protein activity and ligand potency with acute in vivo treatments when they were administered in vitro for 30min on isolated cortex and striatum slices. We previously demonstrated that KYNA1 and KYNA acutely altered opioid receptor function in vivo and in vitro through the NMDA receptor depending on the opioid receptor type and brain region. This study may lead to a new, indirect approach to influence opioid receptor signaling.

Kynurenic acid (KYNA) is an endogenous tryptophan (Trp) metabolite known to possess neuroprotective property. KYNA plays critical roles in nociception, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation. A lower level of KYNA is observed in patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases or psychiatric disorders such as depression and autism spectrum disorders, whereas a higher level of KYNA is associated with the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. Little is known about the optimal concentration for neuroprotection and the threshold for neurotoxicity. In this study the effects of KYNA on memory functions were investigated by passive avoidance test in mice. Six different doses of KYNA were administered intracerebroventricularly to previously trained CFLP mice and they were observed following 24 hours. High doses of KYNA (i.e., 20-40 μg/2 μl) significantly decreased the avoidance latency, whereas a low dose of KYNA (0.5 μg/2 μl) significantly elevated it compared with controls, suggesting that the low dose of KYNA enhanced memory function. Furthermore, six different receptor blockers were applied to reveal the mechanisms underlying the memory enhancement induced by KYNA. The series of tests revealed the possible involvement of the serotonergic, dopaminergic, α and β adrenergic, and opiate systems in the nootropic effect. The study confirmed that a low dose of KYNA improved a memory component of cognitive domain, which was mediated by, at least in part, four systems of neurotransmission in an animal model of learning and memory.