Summary Aureochrome1, a signaling photoreceptor from a eukaryotic photosynthetic stramenopile, confers blue-light-regulated DNA binding on the organism. Its topology, in which a C-terminal LOV sensor domain is linked to an N-terminal DNA-binding bZIP effector domain, contrasts with the reverse sensor-effector topology in most other known LOV-photoreceptors. How then is signal transmitted in Aureochrome1? The dark- and light-state crystal structures of Aureochrome1 LOV domain (AuLOV) show that its helical N- and C-terminal flanking regions are packed against the external surface of the core β-sheet, opposite to the FMN chromophore on the internal surface. Light-induced conformational changes occur in the quaternary structure of the AuLOV dimer and in Phe298 of the Hβ strand in the core. The properties of AuLOV extend the applicability of LOV domains as versatile design modules that permit fusion to effector domains via either the N- or C-termini, to confer blue-light sensitivity.

Nuclear inelastic scattering of 57Fe labeled [NiFe] hydrogenase is shown to give information on different states of the enzyme. It was thus possible to detect and assign Fe–CO and Fe–CN bending and stretching vibrations of the active site outside the spectral range of the Fe–S cluster normal modes.

Among various sites of nitric oxide reactivity in biology, 1 iron-sulfur clusters have emerged as an important class of metallocofactors targeted by NO. 2 Proteins containing these clusters perform a diverse array of functions from electron transfer to small molecule sensing and substrate binding. 3 Consequently, iron-sulfur clusters are potential sites for both NO-derived physiological signal transduction 4 and toxicity. 2a,5 The primary products of NO reactivity at iron-sulfur clusters are dinitrosyl iron complexes (DNICs). 6 Identification of DNICs in proteins and tissue samples has traditionally relied upon the diagnostic g ) 2.03 EPR signal, 7 which is characteristic of these S ) 1 / 2 species. Because iron dinitrosyl complexes can exist in forms other than the paramagnetic mononuclear species (Chart 1), however, EPR characterization is not definitive. 8 Other means of characterization include 57 Fe Mo ¨ssbauer, 9 UV-vis, 10 Raman, 11 and X-ray absorption spectroscopy, 12 but each of these techniques lacks diagnostic spectroscopic markers and cannot easily deconvolute spectra resulting from a mixture of species.

We have used 57Fe nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) to study oxidized and reduced forms of the [4Fe-4S] cluster in the D14C variant ferredoxin from Pyrococcus furiosus (Pf D14C Fd). To assist the normal mode assignments, we recorded the NRVS of D14C ferredoxin samples with 36S substituted into the [4Fe-4S] cluster bridging sulfide positions, and a model compound without ligand side chains: (Ph4P)2[Fe4S4Cl4]. Several distinct regions of NRVS intensity are identified, ranging from `protein' and torsional modes below 100 cm−1, through bending and breathing modes near 150 cm−1, to strong bands from Fe-S stretching modes between 250 cm−1 and ~400 cm−1. The oxidized ferredoxin samples were also investigated by resonance Raman (RR) spectroscopy. We found good agreement between NRVS and RR frequencies, but because of different selection rules, the intensities vary dramatically between the two types of spectra. The 57Fe partial vibrational densities of states (PVDOS) for the oxidized samples were interpreted by normal mode analysis with optimization of Urey-Bradley force fields for local models of the [4Fe-4S] clusters. Full protein model calculations were also conducted using a supplemented CHARMM force field, and these calculations revealed low frequency modes that may be relevant to electron transfer with Pf Fd partners. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations complemented these empirical analyses, and DFT was used to estimate the reorganization energy associated with the [Fe4S4]2+/1+ redox cycle. Overall, the NRVS technique demonstrates great promise for the observation and quantitative interpretation of the dynamical properties of Fe-S proteins.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) was used to study the photochemistry of CO-inhibited Azotobacter vinelandii nitrogenase using visible light at cryogenic temperatures. The FT-IR difference spectrum of photolyzed hi-CO at 4 K comprises negative bands at 1973 cm−1 and 1679 cm−1 together with positive bands at 1711 cm−1, 2135 and 2123 cm−1. The negative bands are assigned to a hi-CO state that comprises 2 metal-bound CO ligands, one terminally bound, and one bridged and/or protonated species. The positive band at 1711 cm−1 is assigned to a lo-CO product with a single bridged and/or protonated metal-CO group. We term these species ‘Hi-1’ and ‘Lo-1’ respectively. The high-energy bands are assigned to a liberated CO trapped in the protein pocket. Warming results in CO recombination, and the temperature dependence of the recombination rate yields an activation energy of 4 kJ mol−1. Two α-H195 variant enzymes yielded additional signals. Asparagine substitution, α-H195N, gives a spectrum containing 2 negative ‘Hi-2’ bands at 1936 and 1858 cm−1 with a positive ‘Lo-2’ band at 1780 cm−1, while glutamine substitution, α-H195Q, produces a complex spectrum that includes a third CO species, with negative ‘Hi-3’ bands at 1938 and 1911 cm−1 and a positive feature ‘Lo-3’ band at 1921 cm−1. These species can be assigned to a combination of terminal, bridged, and possibly protonated CO groups bound to the FeMo-cofactor active site. The proposed structures are discussed in terms of both CO inhibition and the mechanism nitrogenase catalysis. Given the intractability of observing nitrogenase intermediates by crystallographic methods, IR-monitored photolysis appears to be a promising and information-rich probe of nitrogenase structure and chemistry.

The low-molecular-weight protein tyrosine phosphatase (LMWPTPase) belongs to a distinctive class of phosphotyrosine phosphatases widely distributed among prokaryotes and eukaryotes. We report here the crystal structure of LMWPTPase of microbial origin, the first of its kind from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The structure was determined to be two crystal forms at 1.9-and 2.5-Å resolutions. These structural forms are compared with those of the LMWPTPases of eukaryotes. Though the overall structure resembles that of the eukaryotic LMWPTPases, there are significant changes around the active site and the protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) loop. The variable loop forming the wall of the crevice leading to the active site is conformationally unchanged from that of mammalian LMWPTPase; however, differences are observed in the residues involved, suggesting that they have a role in influencing different substrate specificities. The single amino acid substitution (Leu12Thr [underlined below]) in the consensus sequence of the PTP loop, CTGNI CRS, has a major role in the stabilization of the PTP loop, unlike what occurs in mammalian LMWPTPases. A chloride ion and a glycerol molecule were modeled in the active site where the chloride ion interacts in a manner similar to that of phosphate with the main chain nitrogens of the PTP loop. This structural study, in addition to identifying specific mycobacterial features, may also form the basis for exploring the mechanism of the substrate specificities of bacterial LMWPTPases.

Azotobacter vinelandii nitrogenase Fe protein (Av2) provides a rare opportunity to investigate a [4Fe-4S] cluster at three oxidation levels in the same protein environment. Here, we report the structural and vibrational changes of this cluster upon reduction using a combination of NRVS and EXAFS spectroscopies and DFT calculations. Key to this work is the synergy between these three techniques as each generates highly complementary information and their analytical methodologies are interdependent. Importantly, the spectroscopic samples contained no glassing agents. NRVS and DFT reveal a systematic 10-30 cm−1 decrease in Fe-S stretching frequencies with each added electron. The “oxidized” [4Fe-4S]2+ state spectrum is consistent with and extends previous resonance Raman spectra. For the “reduced” [4Fe-4S]1+ state in Fe protein, and for any “all-ferrous” [4Fe-4S]0 cluster, these NRVS spectra are the first available vibrational data. NRVS simulations also allow estimation of the vibrational disorder for Fe-S and Fe-Fe distances, constraining the EXAFS analysis and allowing structural disorder to be estimated. For oxidized Av2, EXAFS and DFT indicate nearly equal Fe-Fe distances, while addition of one electron decreases the cluster symmetry. However, addition of the second electron to form the all-ferrous state induces significant structural change. EXAFS data recorded to k = 21 Å−1 indicates a 1:1 ratio of Fe-Fe interactions at 2.56 Å and 2.75 Å, a result consistent with DFT. Broken symmetry (BS) DFT rationalizes the interplay between redox state and the Fe-S and Fe-Fe distances as predominantly spin-dependent behavior inherent to the [4Fe-4S] cluster and perturbed by the Av2 protein environment.

BackgroundThe Mycobacterium tuberculosis genome encodes two peptide transporters encoded by Rv3665c-Rv3662c and Rv1280c-Rv1283c. Both belong to the family of ABC transporters containing two nucleotide-binding subunits, two integral membrane proteins and one substrate-binding polypeptide. However, little is known about their functions in M. tuberculosis. Here we report functional characterization of the Rv1280c-Rv1283c-encoded transporter and its substrate-binding polypeptide OppAMTB.Methodology/Principal FindingsOppAMTB was capable of binding the tripeptide glutathione and the nonapeptide bradykinin, indicative of a somewhat broad substrate specificity. Amino acid residues G109, N110, N230, D494 and F496, situated at the interface between domains I and III of OppA, were required for optimal peptide binding. Complementaton of an oppA knockout mutant of M. smegmatis with OppAMTB confirmed the role of this transporter in importing glutathione and the importance of the aforesaid amino acid residues in peptide transport. Interestingly, this transporter regulated the ability of M. tuberculosis to lower glutathione levels in infected compared to uninfected macrophages. This ability was partly offset by inactivation of oppD. Concomitantly, inactivation of oppD was associated with lowered levels of methyl glyoxal in infected macrophages and reduced apoptosis-inducing ability of the mutant. The ability to induce the production of the cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α was also compromised after inactivation of oppD.ConclusionsTaken together, these studies uncover the novel observations that this peptide transporter modulates the innate immune response of macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis.