Currently in physical anthropology there is a need for reliable methods of sex estimation for immature individuals and highly fragmented remains. This study develops a sex estimation technique from discriminant function analysis of the bony labyrinth as it matures before puberty and can survive taphonomic conditions that would destroy most other skeletal material. The bony labyrinth contains the organs of hearing and balance. For this reason biologists and paleoanthropologists have undertaken research in this area to understand evolutionary changes in locomotion. Prior studies have found clear differences between species, but within-species variation has not been satisfactorily investigated. 3D segmentations of the left and right labyrinths of 94 individuals from a Cretan collection were generated and measured. Mean measurements of height, width, size, and shape indices were analyzed for sexual dimorphism, bilateral asymmetry, and measurement error. Significant sexual dimorphism was detected for several measurements. For sex estimation, the single best variable was the radius of curvature of the posterior semicircular canal, which achieved 76% accuracy. Two multivariate functions increased accuracy to 84%. Although these equations are less accurate than equations for complete long bones and crania, they appear to be as accurate as or better than other techniques for sexing immature individuals and temporal bones.
During the past decade, several studies have been carried out using the calcaneus bone for sex estimation. This paper collected data using ten variables for metric characteristics of the calcaneus of 144 modern Cretans and examined their correlation with known sex. Secondly, the formulae developed by Peckmann et al. (2015) for modern Athenians was put to the test in order to investigate if it could be applied to this modern Cretan sample as well. Results showed a high correlation between the calcaneus metrics and the known sex of the individuals, however the formulae for Athenians do not seem to be suitable for the Cretans due to the high sex bias reported in this study. Thus, new standards were created for sex estimation from the calacanei in our sample. Bilateral asymmetry was noted in the majority of cases, thus formulae were developed for left, right and mean values. Maximum width (MAXW) was the variable that performed the best in the Cretan sample. Overall, the cross-validated accuracies for univariate and multivariate equations reached 84.2% with males most often correctly identified. The calcaneus was proved to be useful for sex estimation in this modern Cretan population. Further work will explore the suitability of the produced standards for other regions of mainland Greece and islands.
Sex estimation based on measurements of unidentified skeletal remains recovered in crime and death scenes can be accomplished with accuracy. In mass disasters, however, the remains are often fleshed, burned, and/or commingled. As a result, osteometric methods are difficult to apply. In such cases, radiography can be of great use during the examination process. A total of 101 (53 males and 48 females) adult humeri were radiographed using digital equipment (Technix TCA 4R PLUS). Specific measurements were taken on the radiographs and then analyzed. Multivariate discriminant function analysis was applied, and the results showed up to 89.1% classification accuracy. Single variables performed equally well for both epiphyses reaching 86.1% correct group membership. The method proposed here is successful, offering an alternative sex estimation technique applicable to the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are semi-fleshed, burned, mutilated, or otherwise unrecognizable. Specifically, this method is extremely useful when maceration of the remains is not an option.
Sex in the adult skeleton can usually be reliably determined through an assessment of features found on the pelvis and cranium. In the lack of these elements it is necessary to elaborate other methods to establish sex in skeletonised remains recovered in forensic cases. Standards for other bones (e.g. humerus, metacarpals and metatarsals) have already been established for the Greek population. The aim of this study is to determine whether the standards for metacarpals provided from a study on the Athens collection are representative of a modern Cretan population. Using a digital caliper we took 7 measurements on each one of the left and right metacarpal bones of 108 adult individuals from a modern collection from Crete. Totally twenty formulae for left and right bones created from the Athens collection were used to sex the sample of this study. The overall classification accuracy obtained for our sample was very close to the cross-validated accuracy reported by the authors. However, looking at the classification accuracy for males and females, a consistent trend for low classification rates in females was observed. New formulae were developed for the Cretan sample yielding up to 85% classification accuracy. This study clearly indicates that the standards for metacarpals developed from the Athens collection are not appropriate for application in forensic cases for the island of Crete as they do not represent the local population efficiently. This may hold true for other regions of Greece thus great caution should be taken when applying these standards. Obviously more research is needed to confirm these results.
Most age estimation methods are proven problematic when applied in highly fragmented skeletal remains. Rib histomorphometry is advantageous in such cases; yet it is vital to test and revise existing techniques particularly when used in legal settings (Crowder and Rosella, 2007). This study tested Stout & Paine (1992) and Stout et al. (1994) histological age estimation methods on a Modern Greek sample using different sampling sites. Six left 4th ribs of known age and sex were selected from a modern skeletal collection. Each rib was cut into three equal segments. Two thin sections were acquired from each segment. A total of 36 thin sections were prepared and analysed. Four variables (cortical area, intact and fragmented osteon density and osteon population density) were calculated for each section and age was estimated according to Stout & Paine (1992) and Stout et al. (1994). The results showed that both methods produced a systemic underestimation of the individuals (to a maximum of 43 years) although a general improvement in accuracy levels was observed when applying the Stout et al. (1994) formula. There is an increase of error rates with increasing age with the oldest individual showing extreme differences between real age and estimated age. Comparison of the different sampling sites showed small differences between the estimated ages suggesting that any fragment of the rib could be used without introducing significant error. Yet, a larger sample should be used to confirm these results.
The use of pure nitrogen gas to commit suicide has recently become more popular, although suicides involving nitrogen oxide fumes have been occasionally reported in the past. The cause of death in such cases is attributed to asphyxia due to forced depletion of oxygen, a subcategory of a phenomenon dubbed environmental hypoxia. A case of a 26-year-old man who committed suicide by inhaling nitrogen through a plastic bag is reported. The exact method of suicide used here is one of the many described in detail on the Web.
Pesticide self-poisoning accounts for a quarter of the suicides in Crete. More detailed research is required to identify aspects of these deaths amenable to prevention, but measures such as bans on the most toxic pesticides and changes in storage practice would appear to be sensible initial approaches.
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