microRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNAs that regulate many processes within a cell by manipulating protein levels through direct binding to mRNA and influencing translation efficiency, or mRNA abundance. Recent evidence demonstrates that miRNAs can also affect RNA virus replication and pathogenesis through direct binding to the RNA virus genome or through virus-mediated changes in the host transcriptome. Here, we review the current knowledge on the interaction between RNA viruses and cellular miRNAs. We also discuss how cell and tissue-specific expression of miRNAs can directly affect viral pathogenesis. Understanding the role of cellular miRNAs during viral infection may lead to the identification of novel mechanisms to block RNA virus replication or cell-specific regulation of viral vector targeting.
Although interferon (IFN) signaling induces genes that limit viral infection, many pathogenic viruses overcome this host response. As an example, 2′-O methylation of the 5′ cap of viral RNA subverts mammalian antiviral responses by evading restriction of Ifit1, an IFN-stimulated gene that regulates protein synthesis. However, alphaviruses replicate efficiently in cells expressing Ifit1 even though their genomic RNA has a 5′ cap lacking 2′-O methylation. We show that pathogenic alphaviruses use secondary structural motifs within the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) of their RNA to alter Ifit1 binding and function. Mutations within the 5′-UTR affecting RNA structural elements enabled restriction by or antagonism of Ifit1 in vitro and in vivo. These results identify an evasion mechanism by which viruses use RNA structural motifs to avoid immune restriction.
Objective(s)
Primary human trophoblasts were previously shown to be resistant to viral infection, and able to confer this resistance to non-trophoblast cells. Can trophoblasts protect non-trophoblastic cells from infection by viruses or other intracellular pathogens that are implicated in perinatal infection?
Study Design
Isolated primary term human trophoblasts were cultured for 72 h. Diverse non-placental human cell lines (U2OS, HFF, TZM-bl, MeWo, and Caco-2) were pre-exposed to either trophoblast conditioned, non-conditioned medium, or miR-517-3p for 24 h. Cells were infected with several viral and non-viral pathogens known to be associated with perinatal infections. Cellular infection was defined and quantified by plaque assays, luciferase assays, microscopy, and/or colonization assays. Differences in infection were assessed by Student's t-test or ANOVA with Bonferroni's correction.
Results
Infection by rubella and other togaviruses, HIV-1, and varicella zoster, was attenuated in cells pre-exposed to trophoblast conditioned medium (p <0.05), and a partial effect by the Ch.19 microRNA miR-517-3p on specific pathogens. The conditioned medium had no effect on infection by Toxoplasma gondii or Listeria monocytogenes.
Conclusion
Our findings indicate that medium conditioned by primary human trophoblasts attenuate viral infection in non-trophoblastic cells. Our data point to a trophoblast-specific antiviral effect that may be exploited therapeutically.
The non-coding regions found at the 5' and 3' ends of alphavirus genomes regulate viral gene expression, replication, translation and virus-host interactions, which have significant implications for viral evolution, host range, and pathogenesis. The functions of these non-coding regions are mediated by a combination of linear sequence and structural elements. The capped 5' untranslated region (UTR) contains promoter elements, translational regulatory sequences that modulate dependence on cellular translation factors, and structures that help to avoid innate immune defenses. The polyadenylated 3' UTR contains highly conserved sequence elements for viral replication, binding sites for cellular miRNAs that determine cell tropism, host range, and pathogenesis, and conserved binding regions for a cellular protein that influences viral RNA stability. Nonetheless, there are additional conserved elements in non-coding regions of the virus (e.g., the repeated sequence elements in the 3' UTR) whose function remains obscure. Thus, key questions remain as to the function of these short yet influential untranslated segments of alphavirus RNAs.
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