Self-reports figure prominently in organizational and management research, but there are several problems associated with their use. This article identifies six categories of self-reports and discusses such problems as common method variance, the consistency motif, and social desirability. Statistical and post hoc remedies and some procedural methods for dealing with artifactual bias are presented and evaluated. Recommendations for future research are also offered.
It is argued here that a category of performance called citizenship behavior is important in organizations and not easily explained by the same incentives that induce entry, conformity to contractual role prescriptions, or high production A study of 422 employees and their supervisors from 58 departments of two banks sought to elaborate on the nature and predictors of citizenship behavior Results suggest that citizenship behavior includes at least two separate dimensions Altruism, or helping specific persons, and Generalized Compliance, a more impersonal form of conscientious citizenship Job satisfaction, as a measure of chronic mood state, showed a direct predictive path to Altruism but not Generalized Compliance Rural background had direct effects on both dimensions of citizenship behavior The predictive power of other variables (e g , leader supportiveness as assessed independently by co-workers, personality measures) varied across the two dimensions of citizenship behavior
A quantitative review of 55 studies supports the conclusion that job attitudes are robust predictors of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The relationship between job satisfaction and OCB is stronger than that between satisfaction and in-role performance, at least among nonmanagerial and nonprofessional groups. Other attitudinal measures (perceived fairness, organizational commitment, leader supportiveness) correlate with OCB at roughly the same level as satisfaction. Dispositional measures do not correlate nearly as well with OCB (with the exception of conscientiousness). The most notable moderator of these correlations appears to be the use of self-versus other-rating of OCB; self-ratings are associated with higher correlations, suggesting spurious inflation due to common method variance, and much greater variance in correlation. Differences in subject groups and work settings do not account for much variance in the relationships. Implications are noted for theory, practice, and strategies for future research on OCB.Just over a decade has elapsed since the publication of the first two empirical studies specifically addressing "organizational citizenship behavior" (OCB: Bateman & Organ, 1983;Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983), or individual contributions in the workplace that go beyond role requirements and contractually rewarded job achievements. Those studies tested the prediction that job satisfaction, although not a strong correlate of productivity, does relate to OCB, because the latter is less constrained by either ability or work-process technology. Results of those two studies supported that proposition.Since 1983, numerous studies have expanded the empirical base of the satisfaction-OCB link. Many studies have gone beyond the original question of satisfaction and OCB to identify other predictors of OCB, including other attitudinal variables and individual difference measures.The authors gratefully acknowledge the exemplary citizenship behavior of Frank Schmidt, Joe Stauffer, and Mike Burke for making available copies of the programs used by us in the analyses reported here, and wish to express appreciation to three anonymous reviewers for their exceptional professionalism in offering many constructive comments and suggestions.Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Dennis W. Organ, School of Business, Indiana University, Bloomington IN 47405. COPYRIGHT 0 1995 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY, INC.
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