Background: In agricultural-dependent economies, extension programmes have been the main conduit for disseminating information on farm technologies, support rural adult learning and assist farmers in developing their farm technical and managerial skills. It is expected that extension programmes will help increase farm productivity, farm revenue, reduce poverty and minimize food insecurity. In this study, we estimate the effects of extension services on farm productivity and income with particular reference to agricultural extension services delivered by Association of Church-based Development NGOs (ACDEP). Methods: The study used cross-sectional data collected from 200 farm households from two districts in the Northern region of Ghana. The robustness of the estimates was tested by the use of regression on covariates, regression on propensity scores and Heckman treatment effect model. Results: The study found positive economic gains from participating in the ACDEP agricultural extension programmes. Apart from the primary variable of interest (ACDEP agricultural extension programme), socioeconomic , institutional and farm-specific variables were estimated to significantly affect farmers' farm income depending on the estimation technique used. Conclusions: The study has reaffirmed the critical role of extension programmes in enhancing farm productivity and household income. It is, therefore, recommended that agricultural extension service delivery should be boosted through timely recruitment, periodic training of agents and provision of adequate logistics.

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This study explored the potential impact of rural non-farm income diversification on households' welfare and adoption of Zai-technology (a proxy for agricultural technology adoption) using primary data collected from agricultural households in the Upper East region of Ghana. We used Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and Inverse-Probability-weighted Regression Adjustment (IPWRA) techniques to estimate welfare and Zai-technology impacts of non-farm income diversification. After controlling for differences in covariates, the results show that non-farm income diversification increases the likelihood of Zai-technology adoption and contributes to significant household welfare gains. We therefore suggest that the activities of agricultural extension services and farmer-based organizations (FBOs) be enhanced as they facilitate the diversification of non-farm incomes, thereby increasing investment in productivity-enhancing technologies ( Zai ) and household welfare.

The World population is projected to be more than 9 billion by 2050, which is expected to increase the global food demand by 70% between 2005 and 2050 (Nazziwa-Nviiri et al. 2017). Most of these increases are expected to come from developing countries of which Ghana is no exception (United Nations 2011; Alexandratos and Bruinsma 2012). This situation would put upward pressure on agricultural land which is limited by the law of diminishing marginal returns. Hence, identifying, promoting and adoption of sustainable farm technologies are crucial to increase food supply and to address the challenges of environmental degradation. Simtowe et al. (2011) indicated that the adoption of sustainable agricultural technologies remains the route through which developing nations could combat poverty and attain food security. Conservation agriculture (CA) has been one of the techniques introduced to help mitigate depletion of soil nutrients, conserve water, minimize soil erosion, reduce land

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