A change in the size of a fixed-ratio schedule involves a simultaneous change in number of responses, in time to complete the ratio (work time), and in the interval between successive reinforcements (interreinforcement interval). Previous studies have suggested the importance of work time and the interreinforcement interval in controlling the length of the post-reinforcement pause. The present study sought to determine whether number of responses is also a significant factor. Pigeons were trained on a multiple fixed-ratio x fixed-ratio 2 plus timeout schedule in which the size of the fixed-ratio x was manipulated. When the work times (Experiment I) or interreinforcement intervals (Experiment II) were equated for the two components, the pause before the fixed-ratio x was longer than the pause before the fixed-ratio 2 plus timeout. As fixed-ratio x size increased, the relative difference in the lengths of the two types of pauses also increased. Because the fixed-ratio x component contained a larger number of responses than the fixed-ratio 2 plus timeout component, the relatively longer pause preceding the fixed-ratio x indicates that number of responses played a significant role in determining the length of the post-reinforcement pause.
Previous research has suggested that there are stimuli in the environment that can influence the amount of litter discarded in that environment. This experiment investigated the effects of litter already present within an area on littering behavior in a forest setting. The study was conducted for a period of four successive Fridays. The first and third Fridays were used to obtain an estimate of the amount of litter that accumulated after the areas were cleaned of litter (the nonlittered condition). During the second and fourth Fridays all litter was removed from the area, then 60 pieces of litter were scattered throughout the picnic site (the littered condition). The number of pieces of litter was counted each Saturday morning. The amount of litter found on Saturday mornings following a littered condition was always less than the amount of litter found following a nonlittered condition. In those areas which were littered, people had a tendency not to discard additional litter.
A procedure involving the response-contingent presentation of a mild aversive stimulus, reinforcement of alternative behaviors, and training for stimulus control was used to suppress self-injurious behavior of a profoundly retarded individual. This procedure, implemented by several people in varied settings throughout the entire school day, produced an immediate and substantial suppression effect in the training environments. Examination of school records and extensive staff interviewing indicates that the suppression effect generalized from the training environments to the hospital living area. In addition, it was durable in both the training and nontraining settings over an 8-month interval, although 20 months after treatment termination, a large portion of the generalized suppression effect in the nontraining environment was reversed. Possible explanations for this phenomenon are presented. These records and interviews also indicate that the inhibition factor of self-injurious responding was not associated with increases in existing stereotypic behavior or the development of new stereotypic behaviors. The public school personnel who conducted the program were completely trained in one school day without disruption to their normal activities.
Self-injurious behavior is a serious problem among some of the profoundly and severely retarded. In Experiment I a retarded male was exposed to a contingent withdrawal of reinforcement procedure in an attempt to suppress his self-abusive behavior. Vibratory stimulation was used as the reinforcer. In Experiment II differential reinforcement of other behavior and contingent withdrawal of vibration were used to decrease the self-injurious behavior of a retarded girl. The results of both experiments indicated that vibratory stimulation can serve as an effective reinforcer for severely retarded individuals, and the contingent withdrawal of reinforcement can produce response suppression similar to that found under an application of aversive stimulus procedure.
Alternative strategies for reducing self-injurious behavior are needed in order to provide effective service to clientele for whom such behavior is a serious problem. A procedure involving the intermittent presentation of time-out, restraint, and blindfolding produced complete suppression of self-slapping in a profoundly retarded adolescent. A variable-ratio two schedule of time-out and physical restraint contingencies was effective in reducing and maintaining a low level of self-abusive behavior. While some of the treatment effect was lost during and after exposure to a variable-ratio six schedule, the addition of a blindfold procedure to the variable-ratio two resulted in complete suppression of self-slapping. A punishment contrast effect observed during the initial return to baseline conditions was eliminated through complete suppression of the self-abusive behavior during the final intervention procedure. This behavior suppression generalized across time and settings in which the contingencies had never been applied. In addition, this suppression was associated with an increase in adaptive behavior and did not produce any undesirable collateral responding. Two-year follow-up data indicate that complete response suppression has been maintained.
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