Lymphocytes activate adhesion to intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) via leukocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1), their major ␤ 2 integrin, in response to PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) without an increase in the number of receptors expressed. The molecular details of the mechanism are unknown. To determine the effect of PMA activation on LFA-1 movement within the plasma membrane, we used the single particle tracking technique to measure the diffusion rate of LFA-1 molecules on EBVtransformed B cells before and after PMA activation. Diffusion of LFA-1 on unactivated cells was restricted compared to CR1 (CD35), another transmembrane protein of equivalent size. PMA caused a 10-fold increase in the diffusion rate of LFA-1 without any effect on CD35. The increased LFA-1 motion induced by PMA was random, not directed, indicating that it was due to a release of constraints rather than the application of forces. The diffusion rates of LFA-1 are consistent with cytoskeletal attachment before and free diffusion after PMA. Cytochalasin D led to an equivalent increase in mobility and, at low doses, stimulated adhesion. We propose that the release of LFA-1 from cytoskeletal constraints is an important early step in activation of adhesion, implying that the nonadhesive state of LFA-1 is actively maintained by the lymphocyte cytoskeleton. ( J. Clin. Invest. 1996. 97:2139 -2144 .)

The concept of "selective insulin resistance" has emerged as a unifying hypothesis in attempts to reconcile the influence of insulin resistance with that of hyperinsulinemia in the pathogenesis of macrovascular complications of diabetes. To explore this hypothesis in endothelial cells, we designed a set of experiments to mimic the "typical metabolic insulin resistance" by blocking the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway and exposing the cells to increasing concentrations of insulin ("compensatory hyperinsulinemia"). Inhibition of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase with wortmannin blocked the ability of insulin to stimulate increased expression of endothelial nitric-oxide synthase, did not affect insulin-induced activation of MAP kinase, and increased the effects of insulin on prenylation of Ras and Rho proteins. At the same time, this experimental paradigm resulted in increased expression of vascular cellular adhesion molecules-1 and E-selectin, as well as increased rolling interactions of monocytes with endothelial cells. We conclude that inhibition of the metabolic branch of insulin signaling leads to an enhanced mitogenic action of insulin in endothelial cells.Insulin profoundly influences the function of the vascular endothelium (1-5). In humans, physiological levels of insulin stimulate increased production of nitric oxide (NO) 1 in the vasculature resulting in vasodilation and increased blood flow (1, 5). Intriguingly, vasodilator actions of insulin are impaired in individuals who are also resistant to metabolic actions of insulin (6). Although associations between vascular disease and insulin-resistant states such as diabetes, obesity, and hypertension have been firmly established, the mechanisms linking endothelial dysfunction and accelerated atherosclerosis with insulin resistance (typically defined as decreased sensitivity or responsiveness to metabolic actions of insulin) have not been fully elucidated. With in vivo studies, it is particularly challenging to differentiate potentially distinct influences of insulin resistance per se from effects of compensatory hyperinsulinemia. In vitro studies in vascular endothelial cells demonstrate that insulin may stimulate production of NO by increasing both the expression and the activity of endothelial nitricoxide synthase (eNOS) (7-9). Activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) is necessary to promote both increased expression and activity of eNOS in response to insulin (7-9). Interestingly, PI 3-kinase is also a key signaling molecule mediating metabolic actions of insulin in adipose tissue and skeletal muscle (reviewed in Ref. 10). Thus, abnormalities in PI 3-kinase-dependent pathway that are shared among different tissues may provide one molecular explanation for the frequent associations of vascular disease and insulin-resistant states (4).Recent studies (11, 12) in both humans and animals demonstrate that regulation of the insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1)/PI 3-kinase-dependent branch of insulin signaling may be distinct from regulation ...

The matricellular extracellular matrix protein thrombospondin-1 (TSP1)stimulates focal adhesion disassembly through a sequence (known as the hep I peptide) in its heparin-binding domain. This mediates signaling through a receptor co-complex involving calreticulin and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)receptor-related protein (LRP). We postulate that this transition to an intermediate adhesive state enhances cellular responses to dynamic environmental conditions. Since cell adhesion dynamics affect cell motility,we asked whether TSP1/hep I-induced intermediate adhesion alters cell migration. Using both transwell and Dunn chamber assays, we demonstrate that TSP1 and hep I gradients stimulate endothelial cell chemotaxis. Treatment with focal adhesion-labilizing concentrations of TSP1/hep I in the absence of a gradient enhances endothelial cell random migration, or chemokinesis,associated with an increase in cells migrating, migration speed, and total cellular displacement. Calreticulin-null and LRP-null fibroblasts do not migrate in response to TSP1/hep I, nor do endothelial cells treated with the LRP inhibitor receptor-associated protein (RAP). Furthermore, TSP1/hep I-induced focal adhesion disassembly is associated with reduced chemotaxis to basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) but enhanced chemotaxis to acidic(a)FGF, suggesting differential modulation of growth factor-induced migration. Thus, TSP1/hep I stimulation of intermediate adhesion regulates the migratory phenotype of endothelial cells and fibroblasts, suggesting a role for TSP1 in remodeling responses.

Leukocyte avidity is regulated by cytoskeletal constraints, which keep ␤ 2 integrins in an inactive mode. Releasing these constraints results in increased lateral mobility and clustering of integrins, effectively activating adhesion. At least part of the constraint on ␤ 2 integrins is due to actin; whether other cytoskeletal components are involved has not previously been investigated. Microtubules are a candidate for control of integrin rearrangement, because they modulate focal adhesions, which are sites of interaction between integrins and the cytoskeleton. Here we report that both depolymerization of microtubules by colchicine or nocodazole and stabilization of microtubules by taxol increased the lateral mobility of ␤ 2 integrins, activating adhesion. Increased integrin mobility was accompanied by an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of paxillin, a biochemical event associated with activation of ␤ 2 integrins. Further, C3 exoenzyme, an inhibitor of Rho, blocked induction of integrin mobility by nocodazole, but not by taxol, suggesting that there are multiple microtubule-dependent pathways to integrin rearrangement, only some of which require Rho activity. Taken together, our data suggest that a dynamic microtubule system is required to regulate integrincytoskeleton interactions. Furthermore, these data demonstrate that microtubules participate in control of integrin rearrangement, one of the earliest steps in activation of integrin-mediated adhesion.

Coordinated regulation of endothelial cell migration is an integral process during angiogenesis. However, molecular mechanisms regulating endothelial cell migration remain largely unknown. Increased expression of cell adhesion molecules has been implicated during angiogenesis, yet the precise role of these molecules is unclear. Here, we examined the hypothesis that intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) is important for endothelial cell migration. Total cell displacement and directional migration were significantly attenuated in ICAM-1-deficient endothelium. Closer examination of ICAM-1-deficient cells revealed decreased Akt Thr 308 and endothelial nitric-oxide synthase Ser 1177 phosphorylation and NO bioavailability, increased actin stress fiber formation, and a lack of distinct cell polarity compared with wild-type endothelium. Supplementation of ICAM-1 mutant cells with the NO donor DETA NONOate (0.1 M) corrected the migration defect, diminished stress fiber formation, and enhanced pseudopod and uropod formation. These data demonstrate that ICAM-1 facilitates the development of cell polarity and modulates endothelial cell migration through a pathway regulating endothelial nitric-oxide synthase activation and organization of the actin cytoskeleton.

Proteins in plasma membranes diffuse more slowly than proteins inserted into artificial lipid bilayers. On a long-range scale (>250 nm), submembrane barriers, or skeleton fences that hinder long-range diffusion and create confinement zones, have been described. Even within such confinement zones, however, diffusion of proteins is much slower than predicted by the viscosity of the lipid. The cause of this slowing of diffusion on the micro scale has not been determined and is the focus of this paper. One way to approach this question is to determine the dependence of particle motion on particle size. Some current models predict that the diffusion coefficient of a membrane protein aggregate will depend strongly on its size, while others do not. We have measured the diffusion coefficients of membrane glycoprotein aggregates linked together by concanavalin A molecules bound to beads of various sizes, and also the diffusion coefficients of individual concanavalin A binding proteins. The measurements demonstrate at most a weak dependence of diffusion coefficient on aggregate size. This finding supports retardation by viscous effects, and is not consistent with models involving direct interaction of diffusing proteins with cytoskeletal elements.

In several types of locomoting cells, active rearward transport of particles on the cell surface has been observed and correlated with motility. No forward transport of particles has previously been reported, however. Here we report rapid forward transport of concanavalin A-coated gold particles on the dorsal surfaces of lamellipodia of fish epidermal keratocytes. These movements are active, not diffusive, and more rapid than either rearward particle transport or the rate of cell locomotion. We observed forward transport in migrating, but not in stationary cells, and could block the movement by treatment with cytochalasin D. These studies demonstrate for the first time that small numbers of glycoproteins can be actively transported on the surface of the cell to the front of the lamellipodium. We suggest that this mechanism transports proteins involved in cell locomotion, such as proteins necessary for adhesion, and could also produce an extensile force.

Objective Multiple studies have demonstrated that single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the ITGAM locus (including the non-synonymous SNPs rs1143679, rs1143678, rs1143683) are associated with SLE. ITGAM encodes the protein CD11b, a subunit of the β2 integrin Mac-1. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of ITGAM genetic variation on the biological functions of neutrophil Mac-1. Methods Neutrophils from ITGAM genotyped and sequenced healthy donors were isolated for functional studies. The phagocytic capacity of neutrophil ITGAM variants was probed with complement coated erythrocytes, serum treated zymosan, heat treated zymosan and IgG coated erythrocytes. The adhesion capacity of ITGAM variants, in adhering to either purified intercellular adhesion molecule 1 or tumor necrosis factor α-stimulated endothelial cells was assessed in a flow chamber. Expression levels of total CD11b and activation of CD11b were assessed by flow cytometry. Results Mac-1–mediated neutrophil phagocytosis, determined in cultures with 2 different complement-coated particles, was significantly reduced in individuals with nonsynonymous variant alleles of ITGAM. This reduction in phagocytosis was related to variation at either rs1143679 (in the β-propeller region) or rs1143678/rs1143683 (highly linked SNPs in the cytoplasmic/calf-1 regions). Phagocytosis mediated by Fcγ receptors was also significantly reduced in donors with variant ITGAM alleles. Similarly, firm adhesion of neutrophils was significantly reduced in individuals with variant ITGAM alleles. These functional alterations were not attributable to differences in total receptor expression or activation. Conclusion The nonsynonymous ITGAM variants rs1143679 and rs1143678/rs113683 contribute to altered Mac-1 function on neutrophils. These results underscore the need to consider multiple nonsynonymous SNPs when assessing the functional consequences of ITGAM variation on immune cell processes and the risk of SLE.