The measure of atmospheric model performance is highly dependent on the quality of the observations used in the evaluation process. In the particular case of operational forecast centers, large-scale datasets must be made available in a timely manner for continuous assessment of model results. Numerical models and surface observations usually work at distinct spatial scales (i.e., areal average in a regular grid versus point measurements), making direct comparison difficult. Alternatively, interpolation methods are employed for mapping observational data to regular grids and vice versa. A new technique (hereafter called MERGE) to combine Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite precipitation estimates with surface observations over the South American continent is proposed and its performance is evaluated for the 2007 summer and winter seasons. Two different approaches for the evaluation of the performance of this product against observations were tested: a cross-validation subsampling of the entire continent and another subsampling of only areas with sparse observations. Results show that over areas with a high density of observations, the MERGE technique's performance is equivalent to that of simply averaging the stations within the grid boxes. However, over areas with sparse observations, MERGE shows superior results.

Abstract. We present a new version of the Brazilian developments on the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (BRAMS), in which different previous versions for weather, chemistry, and carbon cycle were unified in a single integrated modeling system software. This new version also has a new set of state-of-the-art physical parameterizations and greater computational parallel and memory usage efficiency. The description of the main model features includes several examples illustrating the quality of the transport scheme for scalars, radiative fluxes on surface, and model simulation of rainfall systems over South America at different spatial resolutions using a scale aware convective parameterization. Additionally, the simulation of the diurnal cycle of the convection and carbon dioxide concentration over the Amazon Basin, as well as carbon dioxide fluxes from biogenic processes over a large portion of South America, are shown. Atmospheric chemistry examples show the model performance in simulating near-surface carbon monoxide and ozone in the Amazon Basin and the megacity of Rio de Janeiro. For tracer transport and dispersion, the model capabilities to simulate the volcanic ash 3-D redistribution associated with the eruption of a Chilean volcano are demonstrated. The gain of computational efficiency is described in some detail. BRAMS has been applied for research and operational forecasting mainly in South America. Model results from the operational weather forecast of BRAMS on 5 km grid spacing in the Center for Weather Forecasting and Climate Studies, INPE/Brazil, since 2013 are used to quantify the model skill of near-surface variables and rainfall. The scores show the reliability of BRAMS for the tropical and subtropical areas of South America. Requirements for keeping this modeling system competitive regarding both its functionalities and skills are discussed. Finally, we highlight the relevant contribution of this work to building a South American community of model developers.

Abstract. Coupled Chemistry Aerosol-Tracer Transport model to the Brazilian developments on the Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (CCATT-BRAMS, version 4.5) is an on-line regional chemical transport model designed for local and regional studies of atmospheric chemistry from the surface to the lower stratosphere suitable both for operational and research purposes. It includes gaseous/aqueous chemistry, photochemistry, scavenging and dry deposition. The CCATT-BRAMS model takes advantage of BRAMS-specific development for the tropics/subtropics as well as the recent availability of preprocessing tools for chemical mechanisms and fast codes for photolysis rates. BRAMS includes stateof-the-art physical parameterizations and dynamic formulations to simulate atmospheric circulations down to the meter. This on-line coupling of meteorology and chemistry allows the system to be used for simultaneous weather and chemical composition forecasts as well as potential feedback between the two. The entire system is made of three preprocessing software tools for user-defined chemical mechanisms, aerosol and trace gas emissions fields and the interpolation of initial and boundary conditions for meteorology and chemistry. In this paper, the model description is provided along with the evaluations performed by using observational data obtained from ground-based stations, instruments aboard aircrafts and retrieval from space remote sensing. The evaluation accounts for model applications at different scales from megacities and the Amazon Basin up to the intercontinental region of the Southern Hemisphere.

Abstract.A backscattering LIDAR system, the first of this kind in Brazil, has been set-up in a suburban area in the city of São Paulo (23 • 33' S, 46 • 44' W) to provide the vertical profile of the aerosol backscatter coefficient at 532 nm up to an altitude of 4-6 km above sea level (asl). The measurements have been carried out during the second half of the so-called Brazilian dry season, September and October 2001 and during the first half of the dry season in August and September 2002. The LIDAR data are presented and analysed in synergy with aerosol optical thickness (AOT) measurements obtained by a CIMEL sun-tracking photometer in the visible spectral region and with satellite measurements obtained by the MODIS sensor. This synergetic approach has been used, not only to validate the LIDAR data, but also to derive a typical value (45 sr) of the so-called extinction-tobackscatter ratio (LIDAR ratio) during the dry season. The satellite data analysis offers additional information on the spatial distribution of aerosols over Brazil including the determination of aerosol source regions over the country. The LIDAR data were also used to retrieve the Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL) height, aerosol layering and the structure of the lower troposphere over the city of São Paulo. These first LIDAR measurements over the city of São Paulo during the dry season showed a significant variability of the AOT in the lower troposphere (0.5-5 km) at 532 nm. It was also found that the aerosol load is maximized in the 1-3 km height region, although up to 3 km thick aerosol layers were also detected in the 2.5-5.5 km region in certain cases. Threedimensional 96-hours air mass back-trajectory analysis was also performed in selected cases to determine the source regions of aerosols around São Paulo during the dry season.

Abstract. Every year, a dense smoke haze covers a large portion of South America originating from fires in the Amazon Basin and central parts of Brazil during the dry biomass burning season between August and October. Over a large portion of South America, the average aerosol optical depth at 550 nm exceeds 1.0 during the fire season, while the background value during the rainy season is below 0.2. Biomass burning aerosol particles increase scattering and absorption of the incident solar radiation. The regional-scale aerosol layer reduces the amount of solar energy reaching the surface, cools the near-surface air, and increases the diffuse radiation fraction over a large disturbed area of the Amazon rainforest. These factors affect the energy and CO 2 fluxes at the surface. In this work, we applied a fully integrated atmospheric model to assess the impact of biomass burning aerosols in CO 2 fluxes in the Amazon region during 2010. We address the effects of the attenuation of global solar radiation and the enhancement of the diffuse solar radiation flux inside the vegetation canopy. Our results indicate that biomass burning aerosols led to increases of about 27 % in the gross primary productivity of Amazonia and 10 % in plant respiration as well as a decline in soil respiration of 3 %. Consequently, in our model Amazonia became a net carbon sink; net ecosystem exchange during September 2010 dropped from +101 to −104 TgC when the aerosol effects are considered, mainly due to the aerosol diffuse radiation effect. For the forest biome, our results point to a dominance of the diffuse radiation effect on CO 2 fluxes, reaching a balancePublished by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union. 14786 D. S. Moreira et al.: Modeling the radiative effects of biomass burning aerosols of 50-50 % between the diffuse and direct aerosol effects for high aerosol loads. For C3 grasses and savanna (cerrado), as expected, the contribution of the diffuse radiation effect is much lower, tending to zero with the increase in aerosol load. Taking all biomes together, our model shows the Amazon during the dry season, in the presence of high biomass burning aerosol loads, changing from being a source to being a sink of CO 2 to the atmosphere.

Abstract. The Regional Carbon Balance in Amazonia (BARCA) campaign provided the first Amazon Basin-wide aircraft measurements of ozone (O 3 ) during both the dry-towet (November and December 2008) and wet-to-dry (May 2009) transition seasons. Extremely low background values (< 20 ppb) were observed to the west and north of Manaus in both seasons and in all regions during the wet-to-dry transition. On the other hand, elevated O 3 levels (40-60 ppb) were seen during the dry-to-wet transition to the east and south of Manaus, where biomass burning emissions of O 3 precursors were present. Chemistry simulations with the CCATT-BRAMS and WRF-Chem models are within the error bars of the observed O 3 profiles in the boundary layer (0-3 km a.s.l.) in polluted conditions. However, the models overestimate O 3 in the boundary layer in clean conditions, despite lacking the predominant NO source from soil. In addition, O 3 simulated by the models was either within the error bars or lower than BARCA observations in mid-levels (3-5 km a.s.l.), and lower than total tropospheric O 3 retrieved from the OMI/MLS instruments, which is primarily comprised of middle troposphere O 3 and thus reflects long-range transport processes. Therefore, the models do a relatively poor job of representing the free troposphere-boundary layer gradient in O 3 compared with aircraft and satellite observations, which could be due to missing long-range and convective transport of O 3 at mid-levels. Additional simulations with WRF-Chem showed that the model O 3 production is very sensitive to both the O 3 deposition velocities and the NO x emissions, which were both about one-half of observed values. These results indicate the necessity of more realistic model representations of emissions, deposition, and convective processes for accurate monitoring and prediction of increases in O 3 production in the Amazon Basin as the regional population grows.

Air pollution is an important public health issue. High levels of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere are hazardous to human health. Studies regarding the concentration of this and other gases in the atmosphere allow political actions to manage and reduce the emission of pollutants. In this context, this paper studied the annual, seasonal, weekly and daily variations of carbon monoxide (CO) concentration for the Metropolitan Region of São Paulo (MRSP). We studied three sites in the MRSP, two of them are located in areas under the influence of heavy vehicle traffic (Osasco and Congonhas) and the third one in a city park (Ibirapuera Park). The results showed high influence of gasoline vehicles on CO emission. In the annual scale, CO concentration decreased due to improvements in emission technology, despite the increasing number of vehicles. CO emission showed a seasonal, weekly and diurnal cycle associated to meteorological conditions and emission patterns. The highest values of mean concentration were observed in June/July for Osasco (2.20 ppm), Congonhas (2.04 ppm) and Ibirapuera (1.04 ppm), during the morning, due to weak dispersion of the polluting gases and higher emission from the rush hours.

Abstract. This article presents the coupling of the JULES surface model to the CCATT-BRAMS atmospheric chemistry model. This new numerical system is denominated JULES-CCATT-BRAMS. We demonstrate the performance of this new model system in relation to several meteorological variables and the CO2 mixing ratio over a large part of South America, focusing on the Amazon basin. The evaluation was conducted for two time periods, the wet (March) and dry (September) seasons of 2010. The model errors were calculated in relation to meteorological observations at conventional stations in airports and automatic stations. In addition, CO2 mixing ratios in the first model level were compared with meteorological tower measurements and vertical CO2 profiles were compared with observations obtained with airborne instruments. The results of this study show that the JULES-CCATT-BRAMS modeling system provided a significant gain in performance for the considered atmospheric fields relative to those simulated by the LEAF (version 3) surface model originally employed by CCATT-BRAMS. In addition, the new system significantly increases the ability to simulate processes involving air–surface interactions, due to the ability of JULES to simulate photosynthesis, respiration and dynamic vegetation, among other processes. We also discuss a wide range of numerical studies involving coupled atmospheric, land surface and chemistry processes that could be done with the system introduced here. Thus, this work presents to the scientific community a free modeling tool, with good performance in comparison with observational data and reanalysis model data, at least for the region and time period discussed here. Therefore, in principle, this model is able to produce atmospheric hindcast/forecast simulations at different spatial resolutions for any time period and any region of the globe.