Target of Rapamycin (TOR) plays central roles in the regulation of eukaryote growth as the hub of two essential multiprotein complexes: TORC1, which is rapamycin-sensitive, and the lesser characterized TORC2, which is not. TORC2 is a key regulator of lipid biosynthesis and Akt-mediated survival signaling. In spite of its importance, its structure and the molecular basis of its rapamycin insensitivity are unknown. Using crosslinking-mass spectrometry and electron microscopy, we determined the architecture of TORC2. TORC2 displays a rhomboid shape with pseudo-2-fold symmetry and a prominent central cavity. Our data indicate that the C-terminal part of Avo3, a subunit unique to TORC2, is close to the FKBP12-rapamycin-binding domain of Tor2. Removal of this sequence generated a FKBP12-rapamycin-sensitive TORC2 variant, which provides a powerful tool for deciphering TORC2 function in vivo. Using this variant, we demonstrate a role for TORC2 in G2/M cell-cycle progression.
Background: TORC2/Ypk1 regulates actin polarization and endocytosis via unknown effectors. Results: Pharmacological inhibition of TORC2 reveals that flippase kinases and biophysical properties of the plasma membrane are major effectors of TORC2. Conclusion: TORC2 regulates actin and endocytosis via multiple pathways, each with different signaling kinetics. Significance: Elucidation of TORC2 effector pathways in yeast will inform future studies in higher eukaryotes.
Efficiency of translation termination relies on the specific recognition of the three stop codons by the eukaryotic translation termination factor eRF1. To date only a few proteins are known to be involved in translation termination in eukaryotes. Saccharomyces cerevisiae Tpa1, a largely conserved but uncharacterized protein, has been described to associate with a messenger ribonucleoprotein complex located at the 3 end of mRNAs that contains at least eRF1, eRF3, and Pab1. Deletion of the TPA1 gene results in a decrease of translation termination efficacy and an increase in mRNAs half-lives and longer mRNA poly(A) tails. In parallel, Schizosaccharomyces pombe Ofd1, a Tpa1 ortholog, and its partner Nro1 have been implicated in the regulation of the stability of a transcription factor that regulates genes essential for the cell response to hypoxia. To gain insight into Tpa1/ Ofd1 function, we have solved the crystal structure of S. cerevisiae Tpa1 protein. This protein is composed of two equivalent domains with the double-stranded -helix fold. The N-terminal domain displays a highly conserved active site with strong similarities with prolyl-4-hydroxylases. Further functional studies show that the integrity of Tpa1 active site as well as the presence of Yor051c/Ett1 (the S. cerevisiae Nro1 ortholog) are essential for correct translation termination. In parallel, we show that Tpa1 represses the expression of genes regulated by Hap1, a transcription factor involved in the response to levels of heme and oxygen. Altogether, our results support that Tpa1 is a putative enzyme acting as an oxygen sensor and influencing several distinct regulatory pathways.Protein synthesis is a complex process performed by ribosomes, translation factors, and amino-acyl tRNAs that act synergistically to translate mRNAs into corresponding proteins. The mechanism of translation of mRNAs into protein can be divided into three major steps; they are initiation, elongation, and termination. In eukaryotes, translation initiation relies on the formation of a stable closed-loop structure bringing the 5Ј m 7 G cap and the 3Ј poly(A) tail of a single mRNA in proximity and requires at least 11 initiation factors (1, 2). During elongation, the mRNA codon present in the ribosomal A site is recognized by a cognate amino-acyl tRNA associated with elongation factor 1A. The nascent polypeptide chain is then transferred from the tRNA present in the P-site to the amino acid of the A-site tRNA. Subsequently, elongation factor 2 induces translocation of peptidyl-tRNA from the A-to the P-site allowing the next elongation step to proceed. The entrance of one of the three stop codons (UAA, UAG, or UGA) in the A-site triggers translation termination. In contrast with other codons, stop codons are not recognized by cognate tRNAs but by proteins known as class I release factors (RF1 6 and RF2 in bacteria and eRF1 in eukaryotes). These are also directly involved in the hydrolysis of the ester bond connecting the newly synthesized polypeptide chain to the tRNA located...
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