We observed that the modes of deaths in southern Brazilian PICUs changed over the last 13 yrs, with an increment in L-LST. However, this change was not uniform among the studied PICUs and did not reach the levels described in countries of the Northern Hemisphere. Family participation in the L-LST decision-making process has increased over time, but it is still far behind what is observed in other parts of the world.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is offered more frequently than is observed in northern countries. In contrast, life support limitation is offered through do-not-resuscitate orders. These findings and the low participation of the families in the decision-making process reflect the difficulties to be overcome by those professionals who are responsible for handling critically ill children in southern Brazil.

Descritores ResumoObjetivo Revisar e descrever os dados epidemiológicos dos pacientes admitidos em uma unidade de terapia pediátrica brasileira (UTIP) e compará-los aos aspectos clínicos associados aos índices de gravidade e mortalidade. Descrever as características desses pacientes, incluindo os dados demográficos, prevalência de doenças, índices de mortalidade e fatores associados. Métodos Os dados foram coletados retrospectivamente de todos os pacientes admitidos na UTIP de um hospital universitário entre 1978 e 1994. Os dados foram expressos em percentagens e comparados pelo teste qui-quadrado, calculando-se o risco relativo (RR) com um intervalo de confiança de 95%, considerando-se um p<0,05. Resultados Foram selecionados 13.101 pacientes -em sua maioria meninos (58,4%) -com doença clínica (73,1%), menores de 12 meses de idade (40,4%) e eutróficos (69,5%). O índice geral de mortalidade foi de 7,4%. Os pacientes menores de 12 meses de idade mostraram um RR de 1,86 (CI 1,65-2,10; p<0,0001), enquanto que a desnutrição mostrou um RR de 2,98 (IC 2,36; p<0,0001

Objectives: To describe causes of death and factors involved in the decision-making process related to life support limitation at three university-affiliated pediatric intensive care units in the south of Brazil.Methods: A retrospective study was conducted, based on a review of the medical records of all deaths occurring during 2002 at three pediatric intensive care units in Porto Alegre. Three previously trained pediatric fellows from each service performed the study. Data were assessed relating to general case characteristics, causes of death (failed cardiopulmonary resuscitation, brain death, do-not-resuscitate orders, withholding or withdrawing lifesustaining treatment -the last three modes were classified as the life support limitation group), length of stay in hospital, end-of-life plans and the participation of patients families and Ethics Committees. The Student t test, Mann Whitney, chi-square, odds ratio and multivariate analyses were used for comparisons.Results: Close to 53.3% of fatal cases had received full cardiopulmonary resuscitation. The incidence of life support limitation was 36%, with statistical differences (p = 0.014) between the three hospitals (25 versus 54.3 and 45.5%, respectively). The most frequent form of life support limitation was a do-not-resuscitate order (70%). Life support limitation was associated with the presence of chronic disease (odds ratio = 8.2; 95%CI 3.2-21.3) and length stay in the pediatric intensive care unit (odds ratio = 4.4; 95%CI 1.6-11.8). The rate of involvement of families and Ethics Committees in the decision-making process was lesser than 10%.Conclusions: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is offered more frequently than is observed in northern countries. In contrast, life support limitation is offered through do-not-resuscitate orders. These findings and the low participation of the families in the decision-making process reflect the difficulties to be overcome by those professionals who are responsible for handling critically ill children in southern Brazil.J Pediatr (Rio J). 2005;81(2):111-7: Death, ethics, pediatric intensive care, forgoing life support, do-notresuscitate orders.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation is offered more frequently than is observed in northern countries. In contrast, life support limitation is offered through do-not-resuscitate orders. These findings and the low participation of the families in the decision-making process reflect the difficulties to be overcome by those professionals who are responsible for handling critically ill children in southern Brazil.

During the course of human history, children and adolescents have often been the victims of science in clinical studies. When society was confronted with the horrors of the experiments conducted during World War II, it issued the Nuremberg Code, excluding minors from any such studies as they lack the competence to give autonomous consent. This permanent requirement of the code has resulted in therapeutic orphanhood for many aggravations of the health status of this population. Those who care for children and adolescents now face a dilemma: on one hand, they defend special protection for the group, but on the other, they work to not exclude them from the benefits that science and technology has to offer. Therefore an effort to balance these conflicting principles has emerged through the development of standards and guidelines for such special protection. The purpose of this article is to discuss those guidelines. Keywords: Child-Adolescent. Research. Ethics. Guidelines as topic. Resumo Ética em pesquisa com crianças e adolescentes: à procura de normas e diretrizes virtuosasCrianças e adolescentes foram vítimas da ciência em pesquisas clínicas, por grande período da história da humanidade. Quando a sociedade, diante dos horrores das pesquisas realizadas durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial, adotou o Código de Nüremberg, crianças e adolescentes foram excluídas das pesquisas por não terem competência para dar seu consentimento autônomo, exigência pétrea desse código, o que resultou em orfandade terapêutica para muitos agravos em sua saúde. Os que cuidam de crianças e adolescentes foram postos diante de um dilema: por um lado, defendiam a proteção especial para esse grupo; por outro, trabalhavam para não excluí-los dos potenciais benefícios oferecidos pelos avanços em ciência e tecnologia. Iniciou-se, então, um exercício para balancear os princípios em conflito, com a elaboração de normas e diretrizes de proteção especial. Discorrer sobre elas é o objetivo deste artigo. Palavras-chave: Criança-Adolescente. Pesquisa. Ética. Guias como assunto. Resumen Ética en la investigación con niños y adolescentes: en busca de normas y directrices virtuosasNiños y jóvenes fueron víctimas de la ciencia en investigaciones clínicas durante un largo período de la historia de la humanidad. Cuando la sociedad, ante los horrores de las investigaciones o estudios durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial, emitió El Código de Núremberg, los niños y adolescentes fueron excluidos de las investigaciones por no tener competencia para dar un consentimiento autónomo. Esta rígida exigencia de dicho Código, resultó en una orfandad terapéutica para muchas complicaciones en la salud de estos niños. Los que cuidan de los niños y adolescentes se vieron colocados ante un dilema: por un lado, defienden la protección especial para este grupo y, por el otro, trabajan para no excluirlos de los beneficios que la ciencia y la tecnología pueden ofrecer. Se inició, entonces, un ejercicio para equilibrar los principios en conflicto, con la elaboración de normas y d...

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Objective To examine the effects of short-term cyclic stretch on apoptosis in alveolar type II cells (A549). To study in vitro the direct influence of alveolar type II cells on mechanical stretch. Methods A549 were treated with different doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), 0 ng/ml, 1 ng/ml, 10 ng/ml, 100 ng/ml, 1000 ng/ml, and then A549 were lengthened 5%, 15%, 30% using a FLEXCELL tension unit 4000, a vacuum-driven device that applies strain to cells, which were cultured in six-well plates coated with collagen-I, and 12 cycles/min for 4 hours. Apoptosis was measured using the flow cytometry method that measures annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) staining. The morphological changes of apoptotic cells were observed by transmission electron microscope. Results Apoptosis could be induced in alveolar type II cells (A549) by mechanical stretch. The percentage of annexin V + PI cells increased after being treated with cyclic stretch for 4 hours by 5%, 15%, 30% in all groups. The morphological features of apoptotic cells demonstrated by transmission electron microscope were as follows: shrinkage of the cell, chromatin condensation and aggregation under the nuclear membrane as a crescent or lump, membrane-encapsulated nuclear fragment or cell organ formed by invagination of the cell membrane, and apoptotic body formation followed by vacuolization. Conclusion Apoptosis induced by mechanical stretch and LPS is dose dependent. Mechanical stretch aggravates apoptosis especially in cells treated with LPS. Annexin V and PI double staining is a specific, sensitive, and quantitative method for analyzing apoptotic cells. It is also helpful to clarify the protective mechanism of low-volume ventilation in ARDS. Acknowledgement The study was funded by the 'One Hundred People' project of Shanghai Sanitary Bureau (03-77-20). Introduction Although extrapulmonary ALI/ARDS is a common clinical entity, most animal models used to study this disease are induced by direct lung injuries. Our intention was therefore to investigate whether a condition resembling ALI/ARDS develops during the course of a fecal peritonitis in pigs; in that case experimental peritonitis would also prove as a clinically relevant ARDS model. Methods In 10 anesthetized, mechanically ventilated, and instrumented pigs fecal peritonitis was induced by inoculating autologue feces pellets suspended in saline. Mechanical ventilation was set with VT = 8 ml/kg, FiO 2 to reach a SaO 2 target of >90%, PEEP = 10 cmH 2 O if PaO 2 /FiO 2 > 300 and 12 cmH 2 O if PaO 2 /FiO 2 < 300, and respiratory rate to obtain a PaCO 2 of 35-45 mmHg. Before as well as 12 and 24 hours after peritonitis induction we measured the PaO 2 /FiO 2 ratio, the total compliance of the respiratory system (C), calculated as VT/(P plateau -PEEP) and inspiratory airway resistance (R i ) calculated as (P max -P plateau ) / mean inspiratory flow. Data are mean [range]. Results For data see Table 1. During the course of the 24-hour study period, six of 10 animals developed gas exchange deteriorations consistent w...