This paper presents a literature review of the occurrence of several mycotoxins in bovine milk and dairy products, because it is the main type of milk produced and marketed worldwide. Mycotoxins are produced by different genera of filamentous fungi and present serious health hazards such as carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Under favorable growth conditions, toxigenic fungi produce mycotoxins which contaminate the lactating cow's feedstuff. During metabolism, these mycotoxins undergo biotransformation and are secreted in milk. Data show that there is a seasonal trend in the levels of mycotoxins in milk, with these being higher in the cold months probably due to the prolonged storage required for the cattle feeds providing favorable conditions for fungal growth. Good agricultural and storage practices are therefore of fundamental importance in the control of toxigenic species and mycotoxins. Although aflatoxins (especially aflatoxin M 1 ) are the mycotoxins of greater incidence in milk and dairy products, this review shows that other mycotoxins, such as fumonisin, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, and deoxynivalenol, can also be found in these products. Given that milk is widely consumed and is a source of nutrients, especially in childhood, a thorough investigation of the occurrence of mycotoxins as well the adoption of measures to minimize their contamination of milk is essential.

A B S T R A C T Table olives are highly appreciated and consumed worldwide. Different aspects are used for trade category classification being the sensory assessment of negative defects present in the olives and brines one of the most important. The trade category quality classification must follow the International Olive Council directives, requiring the organoleptic assessment of defects by a trained sensory panel. However, the training process is a hard, complex and sometimes subjective task, being the low number of samples that can be evaluated per day a major drawback considering the real needs of the olive industry. In this context, the development of electronic tongues as taste sensors for defects' sensory evaluation is of utmost relevance. So, an electronic tongue was used for table olives classification according to the presence and intensity of negative defects. Linear discrimination models were established based on sub-sets of sensor signals selected by a simulated annealing algorithm. The predictive potential of the novel approach was first demonstrated for standard solutions of chemical compounds that mimic butyric, putrid and zapateria defects (≥93% for cross-validation procedures). Then its applicability was verified; using reference table olives/brine solutions samples identified with a single intense negative attribute, namely butyric, musty, putrid, zapateria or winey-vinegary defects (≥93% cross-validation procedures). Finally, the E-tongue coupled with the same chemometric approach was applied to classify table olive samples according to the trade commercial categories (extra, 1 st choice, 2 nd choice and unsuitable for consumption) and an additional quality category (extra free of defects), established based on sensory analysis data. Despite the heterogeneity of the samples studied and number of different sensory defects perceived, the predictive linear discriminant model established showed sensitivities greater than 86%. So, the overall performance achieved showed that the electrochemical device could be used as a taste sensor for table olives organoleptic trade successful classification, allowing a preliminary quality assessment, which could facilitate, in the future, the complex task of sensory panelists.

a b s t r a c tThe intensities of the gustatory attributes of table olives is one of the sensory set of parameters evaluated by trained sensory panels accordingly to the recommendations of the International Olive Council. However this is an expensive and time-consuming process that only allows the evaluation of a limited number of samples per day. So, an electronic tongue coupled with multivariate statistical tools, is proposed for assessing the median intensities of acid, bitter and salty tastes perceived in table olives. The results showed that the device, coupled with linear discriminant analysis, could be used as a taste sensor, allowing classifying aqueous standard solutions according to the three basic tastes (repeated K-fold cross-validation: 98% ± 3% of correct classifications) based on the electrochemical signals of 5 sensors. It was demonstrated that the taste sensor with multiple linear regression models, enabled quantifying the median intensities of the three basic tastes (repeated K-fold cross-validation: R 2 ! 0.96 ± 0.04) perceived in table olives by a trained sensory panel, based on the potentiometric fingerprints (21e25 signal profiles) of aqueous olive pastes and brines. The overall satisfactory results showed the electronic tongue potential to assess the intensities of gustatory attributes of table olives, formerly only achievable by sensory panels.

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Lactobacillus acidophilus or Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis Bb-12 and green banana pulp were used in order to obtain potentially probiotic and prebiotic yoghurts, which were compared over a 45-day storage period. Goat milk yoghurts demonstrated probiotic effects up to 45 days of storage. Cow milk yoghurts produced with B. animalis subsp. lactis Bb-12 showed a probiotic effect reduction during the storage period (1.74 log CFU/g). The type of milk affected the yoghurts' chemical and physicochemical properties. Sensory acceptance was also affected, where cow milk yoghurts were better accepted than goat milk ones.

Consumption of milk and its derivatives is an important food habit in the diet of all age groups. However, there has been increasing concern about physical, biological (pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms) and chemical (metals, pesticides and mycotoxins) contaminants in milk and dairy products. Considering the high levels of consumption, it is important that milk and dairy products are free from toxic compounds. Microbial degradation as a strategy for chemical decontamination is an emerging biotechnological approach that is considered a safe and inexpensive practice. The decontaminant activity of probiotic microorganisms is associated with fermentation, antibiosis and the ability of the microbial cell wall to bind to the contaminant. Exploiting the potential of microorganisms for chemical decontamination will further leverage its application in the food industry.

Table olives are prone to the appearance of sensory defects that decrease their quality and in some cases result in olives unsuitable for consumption. The evaluation of the type and intensity of the sensory negative attributes of table olives is recommended by the International Olive Council, although not being legally required for commercialization. However, the accomplishment of this task requires the training and implementation of sensory panels according to strict directives, turning out in a time-consuming and expensive procedure that involves a degree of subjectivity. In this work, an electronic tongue is proposed as a taste sensor device for evaluating the intensity of sensory defects of table olives. The potentiometric signal profiles gathered allowed establishing multiple linear regression models, based on the most informative subsets of signals (from 24 to 29 recorded during the analysis of olive aqueous pastes and brine solutions) selected using a simulated annealing meta-heuristic algorithm. The models enabled the prediction of the median intensities (R 2 ≥ 0.942 and RMSE ≤ 0.356, for leave-one-out or repeated K-fold cross-validation procedures) of butyric, musty, putrid, winey-vinegary, and zapateria negative sensations being, in general, the predicted intensities within the range of intensities perceived by the sensory panel. Indeed, based on the predicted mean intensities of the sensory defects, the electroche micalchemometric approach developed could correctly classify 86.4% of the table olive samples according to their trade category based on a sensory panel evaluation and following the International Olive Council regulations (i.e., extra, 1st choice, 2nd choice, and olives that may not be sold as table olives). So, the satisfactory overall predictions achieved demonstrate that the electronic tongue could be a complementary tool for assessing table olive defects, reducing the effort of trained panelists and minimizing the risk of subjective evaluations.

The detoxification ability of Lactobacillus acidophilus and prebiotics was evaluated by a Plackett‐Burman Design to examine the reduction of concentration and bioaccessibility of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and M1 (AFM1) in artificially contaminated whole cow's milk. Six variables were evaluated: AFB1 (3.25–6.0 μg L−1) or AFM1 (1.0–2.0 μg L−1) concentration; incubation time (0–6 h); and inulin, oligofructose, β‐glucan, and polydextrose concentrations (each between 0.00 and 0.75%). All runs achieved reductions of AFB1 (13.53–35.53%) and AFM1 (17.65–71.52%). Comparing with the positive control, the AFB1 bioaccessibility ranged from 23.68 to 72.67% and for AFM1 was 0%. The probiotic, isolated or combined with prebiotics, was efficient in mycotoxin reduction, while the combination of the two reduced the mycotoxin bioaccessibility. The best experimental condition was the highest concentration of AFB1 (6.5 μg L−1) and AFM1 (2.0 μg L−1), incubation time of 0 h and the addition of probiotic and inulin (0.75%).