The indiscriminate usage of antimicrobials in the animal health sector contributes immensely to antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The present study aims to assess the antimicrobial usage pattern and risk factors for AMR in animal husbandry sector of India. A cross-sectional survey about Knowledge, Attitude, and Practices (KAP) among veterinarians was carried out using a questionnaire comprising of 52 parameters associated with antibiotic use and the emergence of AMR in dairy herds. Respondents’ KAP scores were estimated to rank their level of knowledge, attitude, and practice. Furthermore, risk factors associated with treatment failure were analyzed by univariable and multivariable analyses. Out of a total of 466 respondents, the majority had average knowledge (69.5%), neutral attitude (93.2%), and moderate practice (51.3%) scores toward judicious antibiotic usage. Veterinarians reported mastitis (88.0%), reproductive disorders (76.6%), and hemoprotozoan infections (49.6%) as the top three disease conditions that require antibiotic usage. Most of the veterinarians (90.6%) resorted to their “own experience” as the main criteria for antibiotic choice. The use of the highest priority critically important antimicrobials (HPCIA) listed by the World Health Organization (WHO) in animals, particularly quinolones (76.8%) and third-generation cephalosporins (47.8%), has been reported. On multivariable regression analysis of the risk factors, the lack of cooperation of the dairy farmers in the completion of a prescribed antibiotic course by the veterinarian and the demand for antibiotic use even in conditions not requiring antibiotic use were found to be significantly associated with the outcome variable “treatment failure” having respective odds of 1.8 (95%CI: 1.1–3.0) and 3.6 (95%CI: 2.3–5.8) (p < 0.05). The average KAP score of veterinarians, poor farm management practices, lack of awareness among farmers on prudent antibiotic use, and lack of antibiotic stewardship are the significant factors that need attention to combat the rising AMR in veterinary sector in India.

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In view of emerging threat of COVID-19 pandemic, stringent lockdown measures have been implemented in India since 25 th March, 2020. The present study aims to assess the changes in air quality before and during lockdown in the four major metropolitan cities of India viz., Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. The data on major air quality parameters and meteorological parameters was collected for 15 days before lockdown (i.e., March 10 th-March 24 th , 2020) and 15 days after implementation of lockdown (25 th March-April 8 th , 2020). The lockdown measures reflected a significant reduction in air pollutants, most significant fall was estimated for NO 2 (29.3-74.4%) while the least reduction was noticed for SO 2. On the contrary, levels of ground level ozone were found to be increased (except in Mumbai), could be related to the lower utilization of O 3 owing to decrease of NO x in the environment. Since, the lockdown period has been extended, therefore further reduction of most pollutants is expected. Among the various metrological parameters, significant increase in diurnal temperature was observed at Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai, however relative humidity has changed significantly only in Mumbai. In the absence of any major violent meteorological phenomena in India during recent months the significant difference in air quality parameters could be majorly attributed to the effect of lockdown measures. However, the regional differences may be because of the local emission of pollutants and the prevailing effects of secondary pollutants. These observations highlight the contribution of anthropogenic sources in air pollution, therefore, sustainable polices for mitigation of air pollution are essential in India.

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IntroductionInfectious diarrhoea particularly due to pathogenic bacteria is a major health problem in developing countries, including India. Despite significant reports of diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) pathotypes around the globe, studies which address genetic relatedness, antibiogram profile and their correlation with respect to their isolation from different sources are sparse. The present study determines isolation and identification of DEC pathotypes from different sources, their genetic characterisation, antibiogram profile and their correlation if any.Materials and methodsA total of 336 samples comprising diarrhoeic stool samples from infants (n=103), young animal (n=106), foods (n=68) and associated environmental sources (n=59) were collected from Bareilly region of India. All the samples were screened by using standard microbiological methods for the detection of E. coli. The identified E. coli were then confirmed as DEC pathotypes using polymerase chain reaction–based assays. Those DEC pathotypes identified as Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) were further confirmed using HEp-2 adherence assay. All the isolated DEC pathotypes were studied for their genetic diversity using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), and antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed by using disc diffusion method as per Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines.Results and discussionOf the four DEC pathotypes investigated, EAEC was found to be the predominant pathogen with an isolation rate of 16.5% from infants, 17.9% from young animals, 16.2% from foods and 3.4% from the associated environmental sources. These EAEC isolates, on further characterisation, revealed predominance of ‘atypical’ EAEC, with an isolation rate of 10.7% from infants, 15.1% from young animals, 16.2% from foods, and 3.4% from the associated environmental sources. On PFGE analysis, discrimination was evident within DEC pathotypes as 52 unique pulsotypes were observed for 59 recovered DEC pathotypes. However, a few EAEC isolates were found to be clonal (clusters A, B, C, D, F, G, and H) irrespective of their source of isolation, suggests sharing and/or circulation among different sources. Further, a high antibiotic resistance pattern was observed among isolated DEC pathotypes as almost 86.4% of isolates were found to be resistant against ≥3 tested drugs.

Biofilms pose a serious public health hazard with a significant economic impact on the food industry. The present scoping review is designed to analyse the literature published during 2001–2020 on biofilm formation of microbes, their detection methods, and association with antimicrobial resistance (if any). The peer‐reviewed articles retrieved from 04 electronic databases were assessed using PRISMA‐ScR guidelines. From the 978 preliminary search results, a total of 88 publications were included in the study. On analysis, the commonly isolated pathogens were Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Bacillus spp., Vibrio spp., Campylobacter jejuni and Clostridium perfringens. The biofilm‐forming ability of microbes was found to be influenced by various factors such as attachment surfaces, temperature, presence of other species, nutrient availability etc. A total of 18 studies characterized the biofilm‐forming genes, particularly for S. aureus, Salmonella spp., and E. coli. In most studies, polystyrene plate and/or stainless‐steel coupons were used for biofilm formation, and the detection was carried out by crystal violet assays and/or by plate counting method. The strain‐specific significant differences in biofilm formation were observed in many studies, and few studies carried out analysis of multi‐species biofilms. The association between biofilm formation and antimicrobial resistance was not clearly defined. Further, viable but non‐culturable form of the foodborne pathogens is posing an unseen (by conventional cultivation techniques) but potent threat to the food safety. The present review recommends the need for carrying out systematic surveys and risk analysis of biofilms in food chain to highlight the evidence‐based public health concerns, especially in regions where microbiological food hazards are quite prevalent.

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