Angiosperm-dominated floras of the Late Cretaceous are essential for understanding the evolutionary, ecological, and geographic radiation of flowering plants. The Late Cretaceous–early Paleogene Deccan Intertrappean Beds of India contain angiosperm-dominated plant fossil assemblages known from multiple localities in central India. Numerous monocots have been documented from these assemblages, providing a window into an important but poorly understood time in their diversification. One component of the Deccan monocot diversity is the genus Viracarpon, known from anatomically preserved infructescences. Viracarpon was first collected over a century ago and has been the subject of numerous studies. However, resolution of its three-dimensional (3D) morphology and anatomy, as well as its taxonomic affinities, has remained elusive. In this study we investigated the morphology and taxonomy of genus Viracarpon, combining traditional paleobotanical techniques and X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT). Re-examination of type and figured specimens, 3D reconstructions of fruits, and characterization of structures in multiple planes of section using μCT data allowed us to resolve conflicting interpretations of fruit morphology and identify additional characters useful in refining potential taxonomic affinities. Among the four Viracarpon species previously recognized, we consider two to be valid (Viracarpon hexaspermum and Viracarpon elongatum), and the other two to be synonyms of these. Furthermore, we found that permineralized infructescences of Coahuilocarpon phytolaccoides from the late Campanian of Mexico correspond closely in morphology to V. hexaspermum. We argue that Viracarpon and Coahuilocarpon are congeneric and provide the new combination, Viracarpon phytolaccoides (Cevallos-Ferriz, Estrada-Ruiz & Perez-Hernandez) Matsunaga, S.Y. Smith, & Manchester comb. nov. The significant geographic disjunction between these two occurrences indicates that the genus Viracarpon was widespread and may be present in other Late Cretaceous assemblages. Viracarpon exhibits character combinations not present in any extant taxa and its affinities remain unresolved, possibly representing an extinct member of Alismatales. The character mosaic observed in Viracarpon and the broad distribution of the genus provide new data relevant to understanding early monocot evolution and suggest that the (thus far) largely invisible Late Cretaceous monocot diversification was characterized by enigmatic and/or stem taxa.

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Premise of research. Permineralized fruits of Pantocarpon Kapgate, Patil, Ilamkar & Ramteke have been reinvestigated to better understand this abundant component of the Deccan Maastrichtian-Paleocene flora of central India. Methodology. Peels and X-ray microcomputed tomography (m-CT) were used to compare the morphology and anatomy of the silicified fruits with that of possible extant relatives. Pivotal results. We show, for the first time, the surface morphology of these fruits, which are encased within opaque chert, and clarify additional characters of morphology and anatomy. By varying the orientation of digital sectioning planes through the fruit using m-CT data, we show that five different generic names (Pantocarpon and the junior synonyms Bicarpelarocarpon, Plectroniocarpon, Loganiocarpon, and Verbenaceocarpon) were previously applied to the same entity, each based on holotypes studied in different physical planes of section. Several distinctive characters, including tricarpellate syncarpous fruits, paired apical apertures, empty sterile locules, single-seeded fertile locules, and longitudinal germination valves, are shared with the extant eudicot family, Torricelliaceae (Apiales). The pair of endocarp apertures resembles that in Aralidium and Torricellia. There are some obvious differences, however, from fruits of the three living genera. In Torricellia, Melanophylla, and Aralidium, there are two sterile locules (lateral) and a single fertile one (median), whereas in Pantocarpon, there are two fertile locules (lateral) and a single sterile one (median). Conclusions. Recognition of Pantocarpon as a potential member of Torricelliaceae is interesting because it would be the most ancient record known for the family (next youngest being middle Eocene, ca. 47 Ma) and provides additional biogeographic information. The occurrence of this taxon in India at about 66 Ma, when the subcontinent was still isolated from other major landmasses, indicates that this region may have played a role in early evolution of the family, which is now disjunct between Madagascar, China, and Malesia.

Distinctive permineralized fruits of Baccatocarpon mohgaoense (Paradkar & Dixit) comb. nov. have been collected from several sites in the late Maastrichtian of the Deccan Intertrappean beds of Central India. We describe the peculiar fruits in detail, based on combined investigations by reflected light and X-ray CT scanning. Three-dimensional renderings and virtual slices confirm that the fruits have two lateral single-seeded locules and a central sterile chamber filled with parenchyma. The endocarp is thin-walled and opens apically longitudinal valves. Here we validate the generic name Baccatocarpon Bhowal & Sheikh ex Manchester, Ramteke, Kapgate & S.Y. Smith and recognize a single species, for which the name Baccatocarpon mohgaoense (Paradkar & Dixit) comb. nov. has priority. We document the occurrence of this species in cherts from the paleobotanical sites known as Bhutera, Keria, Mahurzari, Mohgoankalan, Paladaun, Marai Patan and Shibla. The systematic affinity of these fruits remains mysterious.

The genus Surangea Chitaley et Sheikh, based on permineralized specimens from the Deccan Intertrappean Beds of central India, was originally considered to represent a fern megasporangium. Reexamination of original material and new specimens has revealed that the structures are capsular fruits with well-defined seeds, rather than megasporangia. We describe Surangea fruits in detail, based on peels and micro-CT scanning, and document its distribution among multiple localities of the Deccan Intertrappean Beds. The fruits are pentacarpellate septicidal capsules with ~8–12 seeds per locule. The seeds are prominently ornamented with parallel ridges and have a curved embryo/endosperm cavity and a prominent aril. This set of features indicates eudicotyledonous affinities for Surangea. In particular, the combination of septicidal capsules, axile placentation and arillate campylotropus seeds suggests affinity with the order Myrtales, but it does not fit cleanly within an extant family. Surangea fruits add to the diversity of angiosperms known from this late Maastrichtian flora. It joins several other fruit types known from the Deccan flora that do not fall neatly into extant families, possibly representing parts of an endemic community that succumbed to environmental stress associated K-Pg boundary events and/or subsequent northward rafting of the Indian subcontinent.