Potentiation of odor by taste in rats was tested in a variety of situations. In three experiments, almond odor and saccharin taste were presented either as a single conditioned stimulus (CS) or as a compound CS and followed by either toxic lithium chloride or footshock. Extinction tests with the almond and saccharin components were then given. In single CS-toxin experiments, taste was more effective than odor, and after compound conditioning, the taste component potentiated the odor component. Conversely, in single CS-shock experiments, odor was more effective than taste, and after compound conditioning, no potentiation was observed. Rather, interference effects were observed. In Experiments 1 and 2, the addition of taste disrupted odor CSshock conditioning, and in Experiment 3, odor interfered with taste CS-shock conditioning. Visceral feedback is apparently a necessary unconditioned stimulus for the potentiation of odor by taste. These data support the neural convergence and gating hypothesis of flavor aversion conditioning.When compared as single conditioned stimuli (CS) for the rat, odor is a weak cue for delayed lithium poisoning whereas taste is a strong cue (Hankins, Garcia, & Rusiniak, 1973;Hankins, Rusiniak, & Garcia, 1976). However, when both cues are combined into a compound CS and followed by delayed lithium-induced illness, taste potentiates odor. After compound conditioning, odor becomes highly effective when tested alone and may become even stronger than taste (Palmerino,

The role of zoos in conservation education and the management, propagation, and reintroduction of endangered species provides many opportunities for the application of behavior-analytic techniques.Studies of captive animals are often concerned with functional relationships between environment and behavior-the forte of applied behavior analysis.In the daily management of their charges, animal caretakers regularly apply behavioral techniques, induding shaping, use of discriminative stimuli, and varied schedules of reinforcement. However, zoo professionals have not adequately analyzed the behavioral contingencies involved in their management procedures or the consequences of the absence of natural contingencies (Forthman-Quick, 1984;Markowitz, 1982). This commentary outlines the major management tasks faced by zoo professionals as well as current and potential influences of applied behavior analysis. CURRENT APPLICATIONS Promotion of Species-Typical BehaviorA primary management goal of zoos is to promote species-typical behavior patterns and to discourage exhibition of behaviors that are apparent We thank M. J. Marr, moderator of the symposium at the 1991 annual conference of the Association for Behavior Analysis for which this paper was developed. We also thank

University (R. B.)7 AtlantaBears are extremely popular among the zoo-going public, yet while many zoo exhibits have undergone dramatic design changes in recent years, most bears continue to be housed in moated grottos constructed largely of gunite. In these traditional exhibits they frequently demonstrate stereotypic locomotor patterns and are often encouraged by the public to beg. Thus, the manner in which most captive bears are exhibited does not facilitate conservation education. It is possible, however, to provide bears with opportunities to demonstrate species-typical feeding and foraging behaviors, even in standard exhibits. Subjects were four individuals of three bear species. Feeding enrichment was provided to one bear per week during three mornings during the summers of 1989 and 1990. Overall, animals were more active, less passive and less often engaged in abnormal behaviors during sessions with enrichment. Effects showed individual variation and were more profound during the second year of the study, when a greater variety of enrichment items was presented. These results suggest that simple and inexpensive methods of enrichment may have a significant, positive influence on the behavior of captive bears. 0 1992 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

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Conditioned flavor aversions (CFA) are acquired by anesthetized rats but effects of various anesthetics on acquisition of aversions for separate odor and taste components are unknown. In Experiment 1, rats drank tomato juice and then were tranquilized with "Innovar-Vet" or "Rompun" before receiving injections of lithium chloride. Neither drug interfered with acquisition of aversions. Innovar-Vet alone produced no aversions; Rompun alone produced mild aversions but did not enhance aversions when combined with lithium. In Experiments 2 and 3, rats received a compound odor/taste cue as they drank and then were anesthetized with pentobarbital before lithium injections. Anesthesia alone produced negligible aversions but facilitated taste-lithium aversions. During odor tests, odor aversions were weaker than taste aversions. These data extend previous work and suggest that CFA does not result from ordinary classical conditioning. A tripartite notation that unites CFA and classical conditioning is discussed.

Here we present the outcome of a panel discussion from Panda 2000, an International conference held in San Diego, California. The discussion addressed how to use animal motivation theory to develop enrichment programs that will improve physical and psychological well-being for giant pandas in captivity. Wild animals held in captivity too often develop behavioral abnormalities such as stereotypies. The motivational basis for these problems is related to speciesspecific behavioral needs that arise from evolutionary processes adapting the animal to its environment. A more general need is the need for animals to exercise some control over their environment. We discussed these general principles of environmental enrichment with regard to past and future attempts to devise enrichment programs for giant pandas, Ailuropoda melanoleuca. Where possible, we looked to nature for guidance, but agreed that creative attempts to develop functional analogues of natural tasks and challenges is appropriate, regardless of ''naturalness.'' A holistic enrichment program should include improved enclosure design and husbandry practices; feeding enrichment modeled after bamboo feeding when possible; species-appropriate opportunities for social interaction and communication; and routine exposure to a diverse array of novel objects to stimulate play and exploration. These enrichment efforts should attempt to address specific behavioral needs or give the animal more choice and control over its environment.

Most non-human primates exhibit aggression during changes in social group composition. In zoological parks, group membership changes are necessary for optimal population management, but can elicit problematic aggression. Furthermore, some primates with a long history of social deprivation are hyperaggressive when introduced to conspecifics. In this study of one male gorilla with a 30-year history of social deprivation, we assessed the rate of aggression quantitatively during a four-step socialization procedure. We hypothesized that 1) the frequency of agonistic/display behaviors would increase markedly at the beginning of each phase of the socialization, then decline to baseline levels over time in each phase and 2) the frequency of affiliative behaviors would not vary systematically within or between phases of socialization. Our results largely supported these predictions, and we found the four-step socialization process effective in managing aggression in this case. In addition to documenting the successful socialization of a socially deprived adult male gorilla, we believe that the empirical process used in this case argues for scientific management of other introductions. Zoo

Mother-reared (MR) and peer-reared (PR) captive giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) cubs were compared to evaluate the effects of early removal from mother on behavioral development. Males and females and twins and singletons were compared to assess the effects of social setting on behavioral development. Subjects included 2 PR females, 3 MR females, 3 MR males, and 3 mothers. MR cubs spent more time manipulating bamboo and fell more often than PR cubs. PR cubs spent more time inactive. Male cubs directed more playful behavior at their mothers. Twins spent more time play fighting with their mothers than with their siblings. The results suggest that peer-rearing does not provide young pandas with the same level of social stimulation as mother-rearing.