Background: This study was designed to assess whether nonalcoholic offspring from families with a high density of alcohol-dependent individuals have altered endogenous central nervous system opioid activity. Naloxone hydrochloride stimulates plasma cortisol by blocking opioidergic input on the corticotropinreleasing factor neuron, thereby providing a noninvasive method for measuring hypothalamic opioid tone.
Exposure to chronic and traumatic stress has been associated with the dysregulation of crucial stress response systems. Acculturation has been associated with unique forms of chronic psychosocial stress. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of exposure to early traumatic stress and acculturation on dysregulation of the cortisol awakening response (CAR) in Mexican-American adults. Salivary cortisol samples were collected at awakening and 30, 45, and 60 minutes thereafter, on two consecutive weekdays from 59, healthy Mexican American adult males (26) and females (33), ages 18-38 years. Participants were assessed for level of acculturation and exposure to early trauma. Data were analyzed using a mixed effects regression model with repeated measures at four time points. Mixed effects regression results indicated a significant Early Trauma x Time interaction (p=.0029) and a significant Acculturation x Time interaction (p=.0015), after controlling for age and sex. Subsequent analyses of the interaction of Trauma x Acculturation x Time showed that more than minimal exposure to either risk factor was associated with attenuation of the awakening cortisol response (p=.0002). Higher levels of acculturation with greater Anglo-orientation were associated with attenuation of the CAR in Mexican-American adults. Both moderate and higher levels of exposure to early trauma were associated with an attenuated CAR. However, greater exposure to both risk factors was only incrementally worse than exposure to either one.
While childhood trauma appears to be a risk factor for the onset of depression and subclinical depressive symptomatology in Mexican Americans, the specific physiological mechanisms contributing to this relationship remain to be clarified. Stress-induced dysregulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis is associated with depressive symptomatology in non-Hispanics. The current study assessed the extent to which the cortisol awakening response (CAR) predicts subclinical depressive symptomatology beyond the influence of childhood trauma in a sample of 55 Mexican American males and females ages 18–38 years, without a diagnosis of clinical depression. Participants were assessed for exposure to early trauma and current depressive symptomatology. Salivary cortisol samples were collected on two consecutive days at awakening, 30, 45, and 60 minutes thereafter, and again at 3pm, 6pm and 9pm. Data were analyzed using general linear models with repeated measures at four morning time points, and again, at three afternoon and evening time points. Results indicated a significant Symptoms × Time interaction for the CAR (p <.05). The Symptom × Time interaction was not significant for afternoon and evening cortisol concentrations. Moreover, subclinical symptomatology was associated with attenuation of the initial rise in CAR, after controlling for the total frequency of exposure to childhood traumas. Hierarchical analyses show attenuation of the initial rise in the CAR was the best predictor of greater subclinical depressive symptomatology beyond the influence of trauma, and independent of a current diagnosis of major depression in a sample of adult Mexican Americans.
Neuroticism is associated with greater susceptibility to the adverse effects of stress and greater exposure to the stressors associated with acculturation in U.S. born Mexican Americans. Neuroticism and acculturation have been associated with injury to crucial stress response systems and are known risk factors for certain mood and anxiety disorders. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of neuroticism, and acculturation on the cortisol awakening response (CAR) in healthy Mexican-American adults. Salivary cortisol samples were collected at awakening and 30, 45, and 60 minutes thereafter, on two consecutive weekdays from 59 healthy Mexican American adult males (26) and females (33), ages 18 to 38 years. Participants were assessed for level of neuroticism and acculturation. Data were analyzed using a mixed effects regression model with repeated measures at four time points. Results showed a significant Neuroticism × Acculturation × Time interaction. The CAR was virtually eliminated in highly acculturated Mexican Americans with greater Anglo orientation and high neuroticism compared with less acculturated Mexican Americans with greater Mexican orientation and lower neuroticism. Findings suggest that some Mexican Americans with high levels of neuroticism may be particularly susceptible to certain challenges and stressors associated with acculturation leading over time to the development of allostatic load, desensitization of the Hypothalamic CRF system and attenuation of the CAR.
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