9Leventhal and Everhart make it quite clear that pain and the emotions associated with it playa significant part in the development and well-being of the physical and social self. Their emphasis is on the contribution of emotions to the subjective experience of pain, and the explanatory model that has been developed by Leventhal and his colleagues pushes back the frontier of research on pain and pain-emotion-cognition interactions.Leventhal and Everhart provide a critical review of two earlier models of pain. They show that the sensory model, which defines pain as a sensory experience resulting from particular types and intensities of physical energy, has led to a number of false but commonly held assumptions about the sources and meanings of pain. They note, for example, that this model falsely predicts that injury always leads to pain and that the magnitude of the injury is directly related to the magnitude of the pain.They describe the sequential components model in terms of the formula, pain = sensation + emotion. In this framework, the emotion, typically fear, is somehow added to the sensory information resulting from the injury. Investigators following this model recognize the power of emotion in influencing subjective experience and hence they emphasize the treatment of the emotion component as a method of alleviating the pain. Leventhal and Everhart discuss the question of the relative contribution of the sensory data from tissue injury and the emotion component and find the sequential components model inadequate for resolving this issue. In order to resolve the problems inherent in the earlier theories of pain, the authors propose a parallel processing model in which the sensoryinformational data from tissue damage are processed simultaneously or in parallel with the emotional component. The end result of this parallel processing of data from the pain and emotion systems is a pain-distress (or pain-emotion) experience in which there is integration of the sensory information about the noxious stimulus with emotion responses. According to this model, one 262Editor's Introduction neural pathway handles the sensory data from the noxious stimulus or injury and provides information about the location, duration, intensity, and other attributes of the stimulus. The second pathway generates the emotion experience, and the integration of the data from the two pathways produces pain-distress or the pain-emotion experience. The interaction of the two components takes place very early in the signal conduction sequence, but the interaction may be inhibited or altered by attentional processes.The integration of the sensory data of tissue damage (pain information) with emotion requires what the authors term "schematic processing." Through experience, each individual develops affective-cognitive structures or schemata that represent the informational and pain-emotion aspects of earlier experiences. What we experience in a given noxious stimulus-situation is determined in part by the schema we have for that situation. Th...
This study examined the extent to which clinicians mentioned patients' physical attractiveness in intake mental status evaluations. Mental status reports were examined for 50 male and 50 female randomly chosen patients admitted to an urban community mental health center (CMHC) during the same year. Analysis was done to examine the effect of sex of patient, sex of clinician, and their interaction on mention of attractiveness and other related variables. The attractiveness of female patients was mentioned significantly more than that of male patients. Female clinicians were significantly more likely than male clinicians to mention patients' attractiveness and interpersonal style, and female clinicians used more descriptive adjectives overall. No interaction between patients' gender and clinicians' gender was found. Additional findings were that clinicians used more adjectives overall to describe better-educated patients and that they described more fully the physical appearance of better-educated patients. Implications of possible gender and class bias are noted and their clinical relevance is discussed.
In 2013, the American Council on Education and Blackboard began joint research on competency-based education (CBE) to identify challenges and potential solutions for higher education CBE stakeholders. A key premise is that while credit-hour processes are likely to remain deeply embedded in post-secondary systems for some time, there is ample opportunity for innovation with competencies as a parallel and complementary currency. Credit hours provide a basis for current models of exchange in higher education, including credits for degree attainment, financial aid, and other critical functions. Competencies provide representations of learning outcomes that are more flexible and transparent and can be applied in multiple contexts within and outside educational institutions. This chapter provides scenarios that illustrate how competencies provide broad value in educational processes, not only as a means of documenting student achievement, but also to create meaningful connections between jobseekers and employment, for faculty and staff development, and for economic development.
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