Advances in technical radiotherapy have resulted in significant sparing of organs at risk (OARs), reducing radiation-related toxicities for patients with cancer of the head and neck (HNC). Accurate delineation of target volumes (TVs) and OARs is critical for maximising tumour control and minimising radiation toxicities. When performed manually, variability in TV and OAR delineation has been shown to have significant dosimetric impacts for patients on treatment. Auto-segmentation (AS) techniques have shown promise in reducing both inter-practitioner variability and the time taken in TV and OAR delineation in HNC. Ultimately, this may reduce treatment planning and clinical waiting times for patients. Adaptation of radiation treatment for biological or anatomical changes during therapy will also require rapid re-planning; indeed, the time taken for manual delineation currently prevents adaptive radiotherapy from being implemented optimally. We are therefore standing on the doorstep of a transformation of routine radiotherapy planning via the use of artificial intelligence. In this article, we outline the current state-of-the-art for AS for HNC radiotherapy in order to predict how this will rapidly change with the introduction of artificial intelligence. We specifically focus on delineation accuracy and time saving. We argue that, if such technologies are implemented correctly, AS should result in better standardisation of treatment for patients and significantly reduce the time taken to plan radiotherapy.
Statistical regularities in linguistic input, such as transitional probability and phonotactic probability, have been shown to promote speech segmentation. It remains unclear, however, whether or how the combination of transitional probabilities and subtle phonotactic probabilities influence segmentation. The present study provides a fine-grained investigation of the effects of such combined statistics. Adults (N = 81) were tested in one of two conditions. In the Anchor condition, they heard a continuous stream of words with small differences in phonotactic probabilities. In the Uniform condition, all words had comparable phonotactic probabilities. In both conditions, transitional probability was stronger in words than part-words. Only participants from the Anchor condition preferred words at test, indicating that the combination of transitional probabilities and subtle phonotactic probabilities may facilitate speech segmentation. We discuss the methodological implications of our findings which demonstrate that even small phonotactic variations should be accounted for when investigating statistical speech segmentation.
RESUMO.Há divergências entre os pesquisadores da área de desenvolvimento sociocognitivo sobre os fatores relacionados ao desenvolvimento da empatia e da motivação para agir pró-socialmente. O objetivo do presente estudo foi investigar se a aquisição de uma teoria da mente está associada à habilidade de compartilhar emoções e à motivação pró-social nos anos pré-escolares. Trinta e sete crianças com idade entre 4 e 6 anos participaram de tarefas de teoria da mente e de uma tarefa de empatia e motivação pró-social criada para este estudo. Os resultados não indicaram uma correlação significativa entre o desempenho nas tarefas de teoria da mente e o grau de empatia das crianças. A motivação pró-social, por outro lado, foi significativamente associada à teoria da mente. Os resultados sugerem que uma compreensão mais sofisticada dos estados mentais subjacentes às ações humanas não seja pré-requisito para uma resposta emocional empática, mas possa influenciar positivamente o comportamento pró-social. Palavras-chave:Teoria da mente; empatia; motivação pró-social. THEORY OF MIND, EMPATHY AND PROSOCIAL MOTIVATION IN PRESCHOOL CHILDRENABSTRACT. Researchers in the field of sociocognitive development hold differing views concerning factors that influence the development of empathy and the motivation to act prosocially. The present study aimed to investigate whether the acquisition of a theory of mind is associated with preschoolers' ability to respond to others' emotions and demonstrate prosocial motivation. Thirty-seven children between 4 and 6 years of age participated in a series of theory-of-mind tasks as well as in a task designed to assess their emphatic abilities and prosocial motivation. The results did not suggest a significant correlation between children´s performance in theory-of-mind tasks and their ability to express empathy. Prosocial motivation, on the other hand, was significantly correlated with their performance on the theory of mind measures. The results suggest that a more sophisticated understanding of the mental states underlying human action is not a prerequisite for empathic emotional responses, but that this capacity can have a positive influence on prosocial behavior.Key words: Theory of mind; empathy; prosocial motivation. TEORÍA DE LA MENTE, EMPATÍA Y MOTIVACIÓN PROSOCIAL EN NIÑOS PREESCOLARESRESUMEN. Hay discordancia entre investigadores del campo de desarrollo socio-cognitivo cuanto a los factores relacionados al desarrollo de la empatía y de la motivación para actuar de manera prosocial. El objetivo de la presente investigación fue averiguar si la adquisición de una teoría de la mente está asociada con la habilidad de compartir las emociones y con la motivación prosocial en los años preescolares. Treinta y siete niños entre 4 y 6 años de edad participaron de tareas sobre la teoría de la mente y en una tarea, diseñada para la presente investigación, para evaluar empatía y motivación prosocial. Los resultados no indicaron una correlación significante entre el desempeño en las tareas de la teoría ...
ResumoDiversos pesquisadores do campo de estudos sobre teoria da mente têm investigado a relação entre compreensão de emoções e interação social. Seguindo essa linha de investigação, o presente estudo explorou a relação entre compreensão emocional, aceitação social e avaliação de atributos comportamentais pelos pares. Cinquenta e duas crianças escolares responderam a um teste de inteligência emocional e a dois testes de avaliação sociométrica. Não foi encontrada uma correlação entre a compreensão emocional e a aceitação social, porém uma correlação negativa entre a compreensão emocional e a avaliação de atributos ligados à agressividade/disruptividade foi observada. Esses resultados sugerem que o conhecimento de diferentes emoções e de estratégias de regulação emocional podem tornar as crianças menos propensas à agressividade reativa. Palavras-chave: Compreensão de emoções; Aceitação social; Atributos comportamentais; Teoria da mente; Competência social. AbstractSeveral researchers in the theory of mind field have been investigating the relation between emotion understanding and social interaction. Following this line of investigation, the present study explored the relation between emotion understanding, social acceptance and evaluation of behavioral attributes by peers. Fifty-two school-aged children were administered an emotional intelligence test and two instruments of sociometric evaluation. A correlation between emotion understanding and social acceptance was not found, however, a negative correlation between emotion understanding and the evaluation of behavioral attributes related to aggressiveness/disruptivity was observed. The results suggest that the knowledge of different emotions and of emotion regulation strategies may make children less prone to reactive aggressiveness. Keywords: Emotion understanding; Social acceptance; Behavioral attributes; Theory of mind; Social competence.As diferenças individuais no desenvolvimento de uma teoria da mente têm sido relacionadas a diversos aspectos do desenvolvimento social. A aquisição de uma teoria da mente relaciona-se positivamente à habilidade de brincar de forma cooperativa (Astington, 2003), a habilidades de interação social (Watson, Nixon, Wilson, & Capage, 1999), a uma percepção positiva das experiên-cias sociais na escola (Dunn, 1995), ao engajamento em brincadeiras de faz-de-conta (Astington & Jenkins, 1999) e a variáveis familiares, como habilidades para lidar com conflitos com irmãos (Foote & Holmes-Lonergan, 2003).A compreensão dos estados mentais e respostas emocionais de outros indivíduos desempenha, portanto, um papel essencial na qualidade das relações interpessoais. Por outro lado, o desenvolvimento da teoria da mente parece ser influenciado justamente por essas relações interpessoais, mais especificamente, pelo engajamento das crianças em conversas envolvendo estados mentais (Brown, Donnelan-Maccall, & Dunn, 1996
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