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Heterozygous APP23 mice, expressing human amyloid-precursor protein with the Swedish double mutation and control littermates, were subjected to behavioral and neuromotor tasks at the age of 6-8 weeks, 3 and 6 months. A hidden-platform Morris-type water maze showed an age-dependent decline of spatial memory capacities in the APP23 model. From the age of 3 months onwards, the APP23 mice displayed major learning and memory deficits as demonstrated by severely impaired learning curves during acquisition and impaired probe trial performance. In addition to the cognitive deficit, APP23 mice displayed disturbed activity patterns. Overnight cage-activity recording showed hyperactivity in the transgenics for the three age groups tested. However, a short 2-h recording during dusk phase demonstrated lower activity levels in 6-month-old APP23 mice as compared to controls. Moreover, at this age, APP23 mice differed from control littermates in exploration and activity levels in the open-field paradigm. These findings are reminiscent of disturbances in circadian rhythms and activity observed in Alzheimer patients. Determination of plaque-associated human amyloid-beta 1-42 peptides in brain revealed a fivefold increase in heterozygous APP23 mice at 6 months as compared to younger transgenics. This increase coincided with the first appearance of plaques in hippocampus and neocortex. Spatial memory deficits preceded plaque formation and increase in plaque-associated amyloid-beta 1-42 peptides, but probe trial performance did correlate negatively with soluble amyloid-beta brain concentration in 3-month-old APP23 mutants. Detectable plaque formation is not the (only) causal factor contributing to memory defects in the APP23 model.

The development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is closely connected with cholesterol metabolism. Cholesterol increases the production and deposition of amyloid-beta (Abeta) peptides that result in the formation of amyloid plaques, a hallmark of the pathology. In the brain, cholesterol is synthesized in situ but cannot be degraded nor cross the blood-brain barrier. The major exportable form of brain cholesterol is 24S-hydroxycholesterol, an oxysterol generated by the neuronal cholesterol 24-hydroxylase encoded by the CYP46A1 gene. We report that the injection of adeno-associated vector (AAV) encoding CYP46A1 in the cortex and hippocampus of APP23 mice before the onset of amyloid deposits markedly reduces Abeta peptides, amyloid deposits and trimeric oligomers at 12 months of age. The Morris water maze (MWM) procedure also demonstrated improvement of spatial memory at 6 months, before the onset of amyloid deposits. AAV5-wtCYP46A1 vector injection in the cortex and hippocampus of amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS) mice after the onset of amyloid deposits also reduced markedly the number of amyloid plaques in the hippocampus, and to a less extent in the cortex, 3 months after the injection. Our data demonstrate that neuronal overexpression of CYP46A1 before or after the onset of amyloid plaques significantly reduces Abeta pathology in mouse models of AD.

With increasing feasibility of predicting conversion of mild cognitive impairment to dementia based on biomarker profiling, the urgent need for efficacious disease-modifying compounds has become even more critical. Despite intensive research, underlying pathophysiological mechanisms remain insufficiently documented for purposeful target discovery. Translational research based on valid animal models may aid in alleviating some of the unmet needs in the current Alzheimer's disease pharmaceutical market, which includes disease-modification, increased efficacy and safety, reduction of the number of treatment unresponsive patients and patient compliance. The development and phenotyping of animal models is indeed essential in Alzheimer's disease-related research as valid models enable the appraisal of early pathological processes -which are often not accessible in patients, and subsequent target discovery and evaluation. This review paper summarizes and critically evaluates currently available animal models, and discusses their value to the Alzheimer drug discovery pipeline. Models dealt with include spontaneous models in various species, including senescence-accelerated mice, chemical and lesion-induced rodent models, and genetically modified models developed in Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, Danio rerio and rodents. Although highly valid animal models exist, none of the currently available models recapitulates all aspects of human Alzheimer's disease, and one should always be aware of the potential dangers of uncritical extrapolating from model organisms to a human condition that takes decades to develop and mainly involves higher cognitive functions. LINKED ARTICLESThis article is part of a themed issue on Translational Neuropharmacology. To view the other articles in this issue visit http://dx.doi.org/10. 1111/bph.2011.164.issue-4 Abbreviations Ab, amyloid-b; AD, Alzheimer's disease; APP, amyloid precursor protein; BACE1, b-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1; BPSD, behavioural and psychological signs and symptoms of dementia; EGFP, enhanced green fluorescent protein; GSK-3b, glycogen synthase kinase 3b; NFT, neurofibrillary tangle; PSEN, presenilin; SAM, senescence-accelerated mouse; SAMP, SAM-prone; TILLING, targeted induced local lesions in genomes; ZFN, zinc finger nuclease IntroductionAs the prototype of cortical dementias, Alzheimer's disease (AD) presents with prominent cognitive deficits. Initially, patients display limited forgetfulness with disruption of memory imprinting, which evolves to short-term memory disruption and, eventually, to long-term memory deficits. At more advanced stages, patients show executive dysfunctioning leading to advanced helplessness. Besides cognitive deterioration, patients display behavioural and psychological signs and symptoms of dementia (BPSD). BPSD is an umbrella term that embraces a heterogeneous group of noncognitive symptoms and behaviours, including paranoid and delusional ideation, hallucinations, activity disturbances, BJPBritish Journal of Pharmacology...

Seizure severity in experimental models of epilepsy is often evaluated by means of the Racine scale, in spite of the use of seizure induction methods that are different from those of the original paper by Racine in 1972. In such cases, the use of this scale is not always justified because some seizure behaviors are significantly different from those originally described or not present at all. Correspondingly, the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) model, which is frequently used for antiepileptic drug research, lacked an adequate assessment tool to measure seizure severity. In 2009, an adapted intensity scale for PTZ-induced seizures was already designed for rats. Here, we evaluated electroencephalographic (EEG) and behavioral parameters after a single PTZ injection, to determine whether this scale is also suitable for use in mouse studies. We found that the scale designed for rats is quite robust and can thus be applied to score seizure severity in mice. Yet, certain convulsive behaviors and EEG characteristics were distinct between species. Therefore, a species-specific scale was designed, which included the concomitant EEG characteristic next to the behavioral expressions we observed, in order to establish a userfriendly scoring scale for PTZ-induced seizures in mice. To evaluate applicability, we utilized the scale in a seizure susceptibility study of a transgenic mouse model. We demonstrated that the maximum severity scores obtained with the newly revised Racine scale highly correlated with the administered dose. Hence, the revised scale differentiates well between different classes of seizure severity.

In a recent review article titled “A new look at cerebrospinal fluid circulation”, Brinker et al. comprehensively described novel insights from molecular and cellular biology as well as neuroimaging research, which indicate that cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) physiology is much more complex than previously believed. The glymphatic system is a recently defined brain-wide paravascular pathway for CSF and interstitial fluid exchange that facilitates efficient clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid-β, from the brain. Although further studies are needed to substantiate the functional significance of the glymphatic concept, one implication is that glymphatic pathway dysfunction may contribute to the deficient amyloid-β clearance in Alzheimer’s disease. In this paper, we review several lines of evidence suggesting that the glymphatic system may also have potential clinical relevance for the understanding of glaucoma. As a clinically acceptable MRI-based approach to evaluate glymphatic pathway function in humans has recently been developed, a unique opportunity now exists to investigate whether suppression of the glymphatic system contributes to the development of glaucoma. The observation of a dysfunctional glymphatic system in patients with glaucoma would provide support for the hypothesis recently proposed by our group that CSF circulatory dysfunction may play a contributory role in the pathogenesis of glaucomatous damage. This would suggest a new hypothesis for glaucoma, which, just like Alzheimer’s disease, might be considered then as an imbalance between production and clearance of neurotoxins, including amyloid-β.

Loss-of-function mutations in progranulin (GRN) are associated with frontotemporal lobar degeneration with intraneuronal ubiquitinated protein accumulations composed primarily of hyperphosphorylated TDP-43 (FTLD-TDP). The mechanism by which GRN deficiency causes TDP-43 pathology or neurodegeneration remains elusive. To explore the role of GRN in vivo, we established Grn knockout mice using a targeted genomic recombination approach and Cre-LoxP technology. Constitutive Grn homozygous knockout (Grn(-/-) ) mice were born in an expected Mendelian pattern of inheritance and showed no phenotypic alterations compared to heterozygous (Grn(+/-) ) or wild-type (Wt) littermates until 10 months of age. From then, Grn(-/-) mice showed reduced survival accompanied by significantly increased gliosis and ubiquitin-positive accumulations in the cortex, hippocampus, and subcortical regions. Although phosphorylated TDP-43 could not be detected in the ubiquitinated inclusions, elevated levels of hyperphosphorylated full-length TDP-43 were recovered from detergent-insoluble brain fractions of Grn(-/-) mice. Phosphorylated TDP-43 increased with age and was primarily extracted from the nuclear fraction. Grn(-/-) mice also showed degenerative liver changes and cathepsin D-positive foamy histiocytes within sinusoids, suggesting widespread defects in lysosomal turnover. An increase in insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 was observed in Grn(-/-) brains, and increased IGF-1 signalling has been associated with decreased longevity. Our data suggest that progranulin deficiency in mice leads to reduced survival in adulthood and increased cellular ageing accompanied by hyperphosphorylation of TDP-43, and recapitulates key aspects of FTLD-TDP neuropathology.