Nijp HH, Beckers DGJ, Geurts SAE, Tucker P, Kompier MAJ. Systematic review on the association between employee worktime control and work-non-work balance, health and well-being, and job-related outcomes. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2012;38(4):299-313. doi:10.5271/sjweh.3307 Objectives The aim of this review was to assess systematically the empirical evidence for associations between employee worktime control (WTC) and work-non-work balance, health/well-being, and job-related outcomes (eg, job satisfaction, job performance).Method A systematic search of empirical studies published between 1995-2011 resulted in 63 relevant papers from 53 studies. Five different categories of WTC measurements were distinguished (global WTC, multidimensional WTC, flextime, leave control, and "other subdimensions of WTC"). For each WTC category, we examined the strength of evidence for an association with (i) work-non-work balance, (ii) health/well-being, and (iii) job-related outcomes. We distinguished between cross-sectional, longitudinal, and intervention studies. Evidence strength was assessed based on the number of studies and their convergence in terms of study findings.Results (Moderately) strong cross-sectional evidence was found for positive associations between global WTC and both work-non-work balance and job-related outcomes, whereas no consistent evidence was found regarding health/well-being. Intervention studies on global WTC found moderately strong evidence for a positive causal association with work-non-work balance and no or insufficient evidence for health/well-being and job-related outcomes. Limited to moderately strong cross-sectional evidence was found for positive associations between multidimensional WTC and our outcome categories. Moderately strong cross-sectional evidence was found for positive associations between flextime and all outcome categories. The lack of intervention or longitudinal studies restricts clear causal inferences. ConclusionsThis review has shown that there are theoretical and empirical reasons to view WTC as a promising tool for the maintenance of employees' work-non-work balance, health and well-being, and job-related outcomes. At the same time, however, the current state of evidence allows only very limited causal inferences to be made regarding the impact of enhanced WTC.Key terms job motivation; job performance; stress; work-family conflict; work scheduling; worktime flexibility.1 Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands. 2 Stress Research Institute, Stockholm University, Sweden. 3 Psychology Department, Swansea University, United Kingdom.Correspondence to: Hylco Nijp, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, PO Box 9104, 6500 HE, Nijmegen, the Netherlands. [E-mail: h.nijp@psych.ru.nl] During the past decades, organizations increasingly emphasized work-related flexibility in their organizational practices (1). One type of flexibility that has become more common is "temporal flexibility", ie, flexibility regarding working ti...

SUMMARY This prospective four-wave study examined (i) the causal direction of the longitudinal relations among job demands, job control, sleep quality and fatigue; and (ii) the effects of stability and change in demand-control history on the development of sleep quality and fatigue. Based on results of a four-wave complete panel study among 1163 Dutch employees, we found significant effects of job demands and job control on sleep quality and fatigue across a 1-year time lag, supporting the strain hypothesis (Demand-Control model; Karasek and Theorell, Basic Books, New York, 1990). No reversed or reciprocal causal patterns were detected. Furthermore, our results revealed that cumulative exposure to a high-strain work environment (characterized by high job demands and low job control) was associated with elevated levels of sleep-related complaints. Cumulative exposure to a low-strain work environment (i.e. low job demands and high job control) was associated with the highest sleep quality and lowest level of fatigue. Our results revealed further that changes in exposure history were related to changes in reported sleep quality and fatigue across time. As expected, a transition from a nonhigh-strain towards a high-strain job was associated with a significant increase in sleeprelated complaints; conversely, a transition towards a non-high-strain job was not related to an improvement in sleep-related problems.

Objective The COVID-19 pandemic is more than a public health crisis. Lockdown measures have substantial societal effects, including a significant impact on parents with (young) children. Given the existence of persistent gender inequality prior to the pandemic, particularly among parents, it is crucial to study the societal impact of COVID-19 from a gender perspective. The objective of this paper is to use representative survey data gathered among Dutch parents in April 2020 to explore differences between mothers and fathers in three areas: paid work, the division of childcare and household tasks, and three dimensions of quality of life (leisure, work-life balance, relationship dynamics). Additionally, we explore whether changes take place in these dimensions by comparing the situation prior to the lockdown with the situation during the lockdown. Method We use descriptive methods (crosstabulations) supported by multivariate modelling (linear regression modelling for continuous outcomes; linear probability modelling (LPM) for binary outcomes (0/1 outcomes); and multinomial logits for multinomial outcomes) in a cross-sectional survey design. Results Results show that the way in which parents were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic reflects a complex gendered reality. Mothers work in essential occupations more often than fathers, report more adjustments of the times at which they work, and experience both more and less work pressure in comparison to before the lockdown. Moreover, mothers continue to do more childcare and household work than fathers, but some fathers report taking on greater shares of childcare and housework during the lockdown in comparison to before. Mothers also report a larger decline in leisure time than fathers. We find no gender differences in the propensity to work from home, in perceived work-life balance, or in relationship dynamics. Conclusion In conclusion, we find that gender inequality in paid work, the division of childcare and household work, and the quality of life are evident during the first lockdown period. Specifically, we find evidence of an increase in gender inequality in relation to paid work and quality of life when comparing the situation prior to and during the lockdown, as well as a decrease in gender inequality in the division of childcare and household work. We conclude that the unique situation created by restrictive lockdown measures magnifies some gender inequalities while lessening others. Discussion The insights we provide offer key comparative evidence based on a representative, probability-based sample for understanding the broader impact of lockdown measures as we move forward in the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the limitations in this study is the cross-sectional design. Further study, in the form of a longitudinal design, will be crucial in investigating the long-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender inequality.

New ways of working (NWW) is a type of work organization that is characterized by temporal and spatial flexibility, often combined with extensive use of information and communication technologies (ICT) and performance-based management. In a three-wave intervention study, we examined the effects of NWW on both the organization of work (changes in control over time and place of work; working hours and work location; and other key job characteristics), and on employees' outcomes (work-nonwork balance; health and well-being; and job-related outcomes). We applied a quasiexperimental design within a large Dutch financial company (N = 2,912). We studied an intervention group (n = 2,391) and made comparisons with a reference group (n = 521). There were three study waves: (i) one/two months before, and (ii) 4 months and (iii) 10 months after implementation of NWW. Repeated measures analyses of covariance (involving 361 participants from the intervention group and 80 participants from the reference group) showed a large and significant shift from hours worked at the office to hours worked at home after implementation of NWW. Accordingly, commuting time was reduced. Employees remained working on week days and during day time. Psychosocial work-characteristics, work-nonwork balance, stress, fatigue, and job-related outcomes remained favourable and largely unaffected, but the health score in the intervention group decreased (medium effect). These findings suggest that the implementation of NWW does not necessarily lead to changes in psychosocial work characteristics, well-being or job-related outcomes.

We were especially interested in the causal relations between psychosocial work characteristics and sleep quality and therefore this review focuses on longitudinal and prospective intervention studies. Moreover, the quality criteria developed for this review constitute a valuable and practical checklist for designing future research.

This study aims to examine whether the relationship between overtime and well-being is influenced by the voluntary vs. involuntary (i.e., compulsory) nature of overtime work and by the presence or absence of rewards for overtime. We also explored the prevalence of these types of overtime and how they were related to work and personal characteristics. A survey was conducted among a representative sample of Dutch full-time employees (N01612). AN(C)OVA was used to compare rewarded and unrewarded, voluntary and involuntary overtime workers on personal and work characteristics, fatigue, and work satisfaction. Most overtime workers were rewarded (62%). About half of the sample (n 0814) could be classified as either voluntary or involuntary overtime workers, or as having ''mixed reasons'' to work overtime. Voluntary and unrewarded overtime workers had a relatively high income and favourable job characteristics. Involuntary overtime work was associated with relatively high fatigue and low satisfaction, especially for involuntary overtime workers without rewards who can be considered a burnout risk group. Voluntary overtime workers were non-fatigued and satisfied, even without rewards. It can be concluded that control over overtime and rewards for overtime are important for well-being. Moderate overtime work may not be a problem if it is done voluntarily. Moreover, the negative effects of compulsory overtime work may be partly offset by fair compensation for the extra work.

Knowledge of the cycle of work and recovery is crucial for protecting employee health and well-being and preserving working capabilities. However, the daily process of effort and recovery is not well understood. This study investigated how the time spent on activities in the work and off-job domains, and the pleasure and effort experienced while engaging in these activities, affect the daily recovery process. We expected higher levels of effort at work and during off-job time to be negatively related to recovery, and higher levels of pleasure at work and during off-job time to be positively related to recovery. We also hypothesized that pleasure would act as a buffer against the negative effects of effort. Data were collected by means of a five-day diary study (three measurements daily, before and immediately after work, and at bedtime) among 120 university academic staff. Fatigue and (low) vigour were used as indicators of (lack of) recovery. Multilevel analyses showed that pleasure in the work and offjob domains had beneficial effects on recovery. An adverse association between effort expenditure and recovery was lacking. However, in the work domain, a combination of unpleasant and effortful work activities was negatively related to recovery. These findings stress the importance of engaging in pleasant activities during work and off-job time.

This study addressed the prevalence of working overtime in relation to psychosocial work characteristics and need for recovery. More precisely, the aim of this study was to find out (1) whether a relationship exists between working overtime and psychosocial work characteristics (job demands and job control), (2a) whether a relationship exists between working overtime and need for recovery, and finally (2b) whether such a relationship depends on job type (a specific combination of job demands and job control). The study sample (N=1,473) consisted of a national random sample of office-based municipal administration employees who worked full-time. These employees completed a questionnaire on working conditions, overtime and need for recovery, among other things. Overtime was especially common in jobs characterised by high demands. The analyses showed that working overtime is not associated with a higher need for recovery in the total study population. However, there was a positive relationship between overtime hours and need for recovery in high strain jobs (high demands, low control). Furthermore, there was a positive relationship between structural overtime and need for recovery in active jobs (high demands, high control). The relationship between overtime and need for recovery seems to be dependent upon working conditions; indicators of overtime were associated with a higher need for recovery only for employees who experienced high job demands. Longitudinal research within a heterogeneous sample will be necessary to draw firm conclusions about causality with respect to the relationship between overtime, need for recovery and working conditions.