Cell migration is crucial for thymocyte differentiation, and the cellular interactions involved now begin to be unraveled, with chemokines, extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins, and their corresponding receptors being relevant in such oriented movement of thymocytes. This notion derives from in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo experimental data, including those obtained in genetically engineered and spontaneous mutant mice. Thymic microenvironmental cells produce both groups of molecules, whereas developing thymocytes express chemokine and ECM receptors. It is important that although chemokines and ECM proteins can drive thymocyte migration per se, a combined role of these molecules likely concurs for the resulting migration patterns of thymocytes in their various differentiation stages. In this respect, among ECM moieties, there are proteins with opposing functions, such as laminin or fibronectin versus galectin-3, which promote, respectively, adhesion and de-adhesion of thymocytes to the thymic microenvironment. How chemokines and ECM are produced and degraded remains to be more clearly defined. Nevertheless, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) likely play a role in the intrathymic ECM breakdown. It is interesting that these molecules also degrade chemokines. Thus, the physiological migration of thymocytes should be conceived as a resulting vector of multiple, simultaneous, or sequential stimuli, involving chemokines, adhesive, and de-adhesive ECM proteins. Moreover, these interactions may be physiologically regulated in situ by matrix MMPs and are influenced by hormones. Accordingly, one can predict that pathological changes in any of these loops may result in abnormal thymocyte migration. This actually occurs in the murine infection by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. In this model, the abnormal release of immature thymocytes to peripheral lymphoid organs is correlated with the higher migratory response to ECM and chemokines. Lastly, the fine dissection of the mechanisms governing thymocyte migration will provide new clues for designing therapeutic strategies targeting developing T cells. The most important function of the thymus is to generate T lymphocytes, which once leaving the organ, are able to colonize specific regions of peripheral lymphoid organs, the T cell zones, where they can mount and regulate cell-mediated, immune responses. This intrathymic T cell differentiation is a complex sequence of biological events, comprising cell proliferation, differential membrane protein expression, gene rearrangements, massive programmed cell death, and cell migration. In this review, we will focus on the mechanisms involved in controlling the migration of thymocytes, from the entrance of cell precursors into the organ to the exit of mature T cells toward peripheral lymphoid organs. Nevertheless, to better comprehend this issue, it appeared worthwhile to briefly comment on some key aspects of thymocyte differentiation and the tissue context in which it takes place, the thymic microenv...

Several T cell abnormalities have been described in the course of acute Trypanosoma cruzi infection in mice, including severe effects on the thymus. In the present study, looking at the expression of extracellular matrix ligands in the thymus, we observed that deposits of fibronectin and laminin increased progressively during the course of infection, reaching a maximum at the peak of parasitemia and thymic atrophy. Concomitantly, membrane expression of fibronectin and laminin receptors (VLA-4, VLA-5 and VLA-6) was also enhanced on thymocyte subsets of infected mice. These results correlated with changes in intrathymic thymocyte migration ability during the acute phase of infection, when a higher fibronectindependent transmigratory activity of CD4 + CD8 + thymocytes was observed. Strikingly, we detected higher frequency of immature and high VLA-expressing CD4 + CD8 + T cells in the peripheral lymphoid organs of infected mice at the peak of parasitemia. These cells seemed to be thymus dependent, since significantly lower amounts of them were found in thymectomized mice, and some of them carry "prohibited" V g segments of the TCR. Our data suggest an imbalance in the intrathymic cell trafficking following acute T. cruzi infection, likely due to dysregulated extracellular matrix-dependent interactions.

It is largely established that molecules first discovered in the nervous system are also found in the immune system. Neuropilin-1 (NP-1) was initially identified to mediate semaphorin-induced chemorepulsion during brain development and is also involved in peripheral T cell/dendritic cell interactions. Herein, we studied NP-1 during T cell development in the human thymus. NP-1 is expressed in both cortex and medulla of thymic lobules, being found in distinct CD4/CD8-defined thymocyte subsets. NP-1 is also found in thymic epithelial cells (TEC) in situ and in vitro, and is recruited at the site of TEC-thymocyte contact. Moreover, NP-1 was rapidly up-regulated during thymocyte stimulation by T cell receptor (TCR) and IL-7 or after adhesion to TEC. Semaphorin-3A (Sema-3A), a natural ligand of NP-1, is also present in human thymus, both in TEC and thymocytes, being up-regulated in thymocytes after TCR engagement. Functionally, Sema-3A decreases the adhesion capacity of NP-1 ؉ thymocytes and induces their migration by a repulsive effect. In conclusion, we show here that NP-1/Sema-3A-mediated interactions participate in the control of human thymocyte development. extracellular matrix ͉ integrins ͉ thymocyte adhesion and migration

Previous evidence indicates that GH modulates thymic cell migration. In this study we approached this issue in vivo, studying thymocyte migration in GH transgenic animals and in normal mice treated intrathymically with GH. Extracellular matrix and chemokines are involved in thymocyte migration. In this respect, thymocyte adhesion to laminin was higher in GH-treated animals than controls, and the numbers of migrating cells in laminin-coated Transwells was higher in GH-transgenic and GH-injected mice. Additionally, CXC chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12)-driven migration was higher in GH-Tg and GH-treated animals compared with controls. Interestingly, although CXCR4 expression on thymocytes did not change in GH-Tg mice, the CXCL12 intrathymic contents were higher. We found that CXCL12, in conjunction with laminin, would additionally enhance the migration of thymocytes previously exposed to high concentrations of GH in vivo. Lastly, there was an augmentation of recent thymic emigrants in lymph nodes from GH-Tg and GH-injected animals. In conclusion, enhanced thymocyte migration in GH transgenic mice as well as GH-injected mice results at least partially from a combined action of laminin and CXCL12. Considering that GH is presently being used as an adjuvant therapeutic agent in immunodeficiencies, including AIDS, the concepts defined herein provide important background knowledge for future GH-based immune interventions.

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Following infection, lymphocytes expand exponentially and differentiate into effector cells to control infection and coordinate the multiple effector arms of the immune response. Soon after this expansion, the majority of antigen-specific lymphocytes die, thus keeping homeostasis, and a small pool of memory cells develops, providing long-term immunity to subsequent reinfection. The extent of infection and rate of pathogen clearance are thought to determine both the magnitude of cell expansion and the homeostatic contraction to a stable number of memory cells. This straight correlation between the kinetics of T cell response and the dynamics of lymphoid tissue cell numbers is a constant feature in acute infections yielded by pathogens that are cleared during the course of response. However, the regional dynamics of the immune response mounted against pathogens that are able to establish a persistent infection remain poorly understood. Herein we discuss the differential lymphocyte dynamics in distinct central and peripheral lymphoid organs following acute infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease. While the thymus and mesenteric lymph nodes undergo a severe atrophy with massive lymphocyte depletion, the spleen and subcutaneous lymph nodes expand due to T and B cell activation/proliferation. These events are regulated by cytokines, as well as parasite-derived moieties. In this regard, identifying the molecular mechanisms underlying regional lymphocyte dynamics secondary to T. cruzi infection may hopefully contribute to the design of novel immune intervention strategies to control pathology in this infection.

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