Climate information and agro-advisory services are crucial in helping smallholder farmers and pastoralists in East Africa manage climate-related risks and adapt to climate change. However, significant gaps exist in provision of climate information that effectively addresses the needs of farmers and pastoralists. Most farmers and pastoralists, therefore, rely on indigenous knowledge (IK), where local indicators and experiences are used to observe and forecast weather conditions. While IK-based forecasting is inbuilt and established in many communities in East Africa, coordinated research and systematic documentation of IK for weather forecasting, including accuracy and reliability of IK is largely lacking. This paper documents and synthesizes existing IK for weather forecasting in East Africa using case studies from Ethiopia, Tanzania, and Uganda. The results show that farmers and pastoralists use a combination of meteorological, biological, and astrological indicators to forecast local weather conditions. IK weather forecasting is, therefore, crucial in supporting efforts to improve access to climate information in East Africa, especially in resource-poor and vulnerable communities. The paper draws valuable lessons on how farmers and pastoralists in East Africa use IK weather forecasts for making crop and livestock production decisions and demonstrates that the trust and willingness to apply scientific forecasts by farmers and pastoralists is likely to increase when integrated with IK. Therefore, a systematic documentation of IK, and a framework for integrating IK and scientific weather forecasting from national meteorological agencies can improve accuracy, uptake, and use of weather forecasts.

To tackle the problem of soil erosion and moisture stress, the government of Ethiopia introduced a yearly mass campaign where communities get together and implement various soil and water conservation (SWC) and water harvesting (WH) practices. Although the interventions are believed to have reduced soil erosion/sediment yield and enhanced surface and ground water, quantitative information on the impacts of various options at different scales is scarce. The objective of this study was to assess the impacts different land uses, SWC and WH interventions on water and suspended sediment yield (SSY) at plot and watershed scales in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Standard erosion plot experiments and hydrological stations were used to monitor the daily water and SSY during 2014 to 2017. The results show differences between treatments both at plot and watershed scales. Runoff and soil loss were reduced by an average 27 and 37%, respectively due to SWC practices at the plot level. Overall, SWC practices implemented at the watershed level reduced sediment yield by about 74% (in the year 2014), although the magnitude of sediment reduction due to the SWC interventions reduced over time. At both scales it was observed that as the number of years since SWC measures have been in place increased, their effectiveness declined due to the lack of maintenance. This study also revealed that extrapolating of plot data to watershed scale causes over or under estimation of net erosion.

BackgroundTuberculous lymphadenitis (TBLN) diagnosis remains a challenge in resource limited countries like Ethiopia. Most diagnostic centers in Ethiopia use smear microscopy, but it has low sensitivity in detecting tubercle bacilli in fine needle aspiration (FNA) specimens. FNA cytology (FNAC) is another widely applicable diagnostic option but it has low specificity for diagnosing TBLN. In 2014, WHO recommended Xpert MTB/RIF assay to be used in detecting TB from FNA specimen by considering the diagnostic limitations of microscopy and cytology. In Ethiopia, there is limited data on Xpert MTB/RIF performance in detecting TBLN from FNA. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the diagnostic performance of Xpert MTB/RIF assay and non-molecular methods (cytology, microscopy and culture) for the diagnosis of TBLN.MethodsA cross-sectional study was conducted on 152 presumptive TBLN patients at St. Paul’s Hospital Millennium Medical College (SPHMMC) from December 2015 to May 2016 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. FNA specimens were collected from each patient. Individual patient specimens were examined by microscopy (acid fast and auramine O staining), cytology, Xpert MTB/RIF and culture. Each specimen was directly inoculated and its sediment following decontamination procedure onto two duplicate Löwenstein-Jensen (LJ) media. Composite culture (specimen positive by direct or concentrated or both culturing methods) and composite method (positive by either one of the non-molecular methods) were taken as reference methods. The data was captured and analyzed using software packages SPSS version 20 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Illinois, USA). Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value were calculated.ResultA total of 152 presumptive TBLN patients were enrolled in this study. Of these, 105(69%), 68(44.7%), 64(42%), 48(32%) and 33(22%) were positive for M. tuberculosis using composite method (positive by either one of the non-molecular method), composite culture, direct, and concentrated culture, respectively. TB positivity rate was 67.8%, 49.3%, 24.3%, and 14.5% using cytology, Xpert MTB/RIF, Auramine O (FM) microscopy, and Ziehl Nelson (ZN) microscopy, respectively. Using composite culture as reference, the sensitivity and specificity of Xpert MTB/RIF was 78% (95% CI: 73.7% to 82.3%) and 74% (95%CI: 69.4% to 78.6%), respectively. However, the sensitivity of Xpert MTB/RF improved from 78% to 92% using composite method as a reference. The high positivity rate observed in purulent (70%) followed by caseous (66.7%) type of aspirates by Xpert MTB/RIF.ConclusionXpert MTB/RIF assay has both considerable sensitivity and specificity; it may be employed for better diagnosis, management and treatment of presumptive TBLN patients.

Background: Land degradation through soil erosion by water is severe in the highlands of Ethiopia. In order to curb this problem, the government initiated sustainable land management interventions in different parts of the country since 2008, and in Geda watershed since 2012. However, the impacts of the interventions on soil properties were not assessed so far. Thus, this study investigated the impacts of sustainable land management interventions on selected soil properties in Geda watershed. Soil samples were collected from treated and untreated subwatersheds at the upper and lower landscape positions, from cropland and grazing lands at two soil depths (0-15 cm and 15-30 cm). Selected soil physicochemical properties were assessed with respect to landscape position, land-use type, and soil depth in both treated and untreated sub-watersheds. Results: Generally, most of the soil physicochemical properties differed greatly across sub-watersheds, land-use types, and soil depths. Clay, electrical conductivity, total N, available P, exchangeable K, and organic carbon were higher in the treated sub-watershed, whereas sand, silt, bulk density, and pH were higher in the untreated subwatershed. The higher sand, silt, and bulk density could be attributed to erosion, while the higher pH could be due to the higher exchangeable Na in the untreated sub-watershed. Most of the selected soil chemical properties were not affected by landscape position, but land-use type affected available P and organic carbon with higher mean values at croplands than at grazing lands, which could be ascribed to the conservation structure and tillage of the soils in that conservation structures trap and accumulate transported organic materials from the upper slope, while tillage facilitates aeration and decomposition processes. Conclusion: Sustainable land management interventions improved soil physicochemical properties and brought a positive restoration of the soil ecosystem. Maintaining the soil conservation measures and enhancing community awareness about the benefits, coupled with management of livestock grazing are required to sustain best practices.

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Cropping is responsible for substantial emissions of greenhouse gasses (GHGs) worldwide through the use of fertilizers and through expansion of agricultural land and associated carbon losses. Especially in sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA), GHG emissions from these processes might increase steeply in coming decades, due to tripling demand for food until 2050 to match the steep population growth. This study assesses the impact of achieving cereal self‐sufficiency by the year 2050 for 10 SSA countries on GHG emissions related to different scenarios of increasing cereal production, ranging from intensifying production to agricultural area expansion. We also assessed different nutrient management variants in the intensification. Our analysis revealed that irrespective of intensification or extensification, GHG emissions of the 10 countries jointly are at least 50% higher in 2050 than in 2015. Intensification will come, depending on the nutrient use efficiency achieved, with large increases in nutrient inputs and associated GHG emissions. However, matching food demand through conversion of forest and grasslands to cereal area likely results in much higher GHG emissions. Moreover, many countries lack enough suitable land for cereal expansion to match food demand. In addition, we analysed the uncertainty in our GHG estimates and found that it is caused primarily by uncertainty in the IPCC Tier 1 coefficient for direct N2O emissions, and by the agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (N‐AE). In conclusion, intensification scenarios are clearly superior to expansion scenarios in terms of climate change mitigation, but only if current N‐AE is increased to levels commonly achieved in, for example, the United States, and which have been demonstrated to be feasible in some locations in SSA. As such, intensifying cereal production with good agronomy and nutrient management is essential to moderate inevitable increases in GHG emissions. Sustainably increasing crop production in SSA is therefore a daunting challenge in the coming decades.

Introduction Achyranthes aspera , Chenopodium murale , Satureja punctata , Rumex abyssinicus and Aloe pulcherrima are traditionally used to treat urolithiasis in Ethiopia. However, there are limited reports on toxicity studies. Objective This study was intended to evaluate the acute and sub-acute toxicity effects of plants. Materials and Methods The crude extracts of A. aspera and C. murale leaves, S. punctata aerial parts, R. abyssinicus rhizomes, and A. Pulcherrima gel were prepared using 70 % ethanol. In acute toxicity, 125, 500 and 2000 mg/kg were tested in a stepwise manner; whereas 2000 mg/kg administrated to female rats using gavage during sub-acute toxicity. On day 14 and 28, blood samples were collected from retro-orbital sinus; liver and kidneys of each animal were collected under anaesthesia. Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA, Dunnett's comparison test of the Graph Pad Prism. Results No mortality and significant weight loss for all extracts in both toxicity tests. In acute toxicity, C. murale extract significantly reduced hemoglobin and platelets (P < 0.01) compared with the control. Likewise, S. punctata (P < 0.05) and R. abyssinicus (P < 0.01) extracts revealed significant reduction in platelet count. An exposure to C. murale and R. abyssinicus extracts reduced the concentrations of platelet distribution width and platelet larger cell ratio (p < 0.05) during sub-acute toxicity test. The level of creatinine reduced due to A. aspera extract administrations(P < 0.05). Liver histopathological examinations revealed focal periportal hepatitis following sub-acute toxicity test of C. murale. Histopathological studies of liver demonstrated that R. abyssinicus , A. aspera and S. punctata extracts showed mild acute liver injury. A. pulcherrima was not associated with any toxicity. Conclusion C. murale extract showed hematological, and histopathological toxicity profiles in rats. Furthermore, chronic toxicity studies of A. aspera , S. punctata and R. abyssinicus extracts would be beneficial to ensure safety.

This study investigated the impacts of climate change on the hydrology of the Upper Awash Basin, Ethiopia. A soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) model was calibrated and validated against observed streamflow using SWAT CUP. The Mann–Kendall trend test (MK) was used to assess climate trends. Meteorological drought (SPEI) and hydrological drought (SDI) were also investigated. Based on the ensemble mean of five global climate models (GCMs), projected increases in mean annual maximum temperature over the period 2015–2100 (compared with a 1983–2014 baseline) range from 1.16 to 1.73 °C, while increases in minimum temperature range between 0.79 and 2.53 °C. Increases in mean annual precipitation range from 1.8% at Addis Ababa to 45.5% over the Hombole area. High streamflow (Q5) declines at all stations except Ginchi. Low flows (Q90) also decline with Q90 equaling 0 m3s−1 (i.e., 100% reduction) at some gauging stations (Akaki and Hombole) for individual GCMs. The SPEI confirmed a significant drought trend in the past, while the frequency and severity of drought will increase in the future. The basin experienced conditions that varied from modest dry periods to a very severe hydrological drought between 1986 and 2005. The projected SDI ranges from modestly dry to modestly wet conditions. Climate change in the basin would enhance seasonal variations in hydrological conditions. Both precipitation and streamflow will decline in the wet seasons and increase in the dry seasons. These changes are likely to have an impact on agricultural activities and other human demands for water resources throughout the basin and will require the implementation of appropriate mitigation measures.