This review covers the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of diabetic gastroparesis, and more broadly diabetic gastroenteropathy, which encompasses all the gastrointestinal manifestations of diabetes mellitus. Up to 50% of patients with type 1 and type 2 DM and suboptimal glycemic control have delayed gastric emptying (GE), which can be documented with scintigraphy, 13C breath tests, or a wireless motility capsule; the remainder have normal or rapid GE. Many patients with delayed GE are asymptomatic; others have dyspepsia (i.e., mild to moderate indigestion, with or without a mild delay in GE) or gastroparesis, which is a syndrome characterized by moderate to severe upper gastrointestinal symptoms and delayed GE that suggest, but are not accompanied by, gastric outlet obstruction. Gastroparesis can markedly impair quality of life, and up to 50% of patients have significant anxiety and/or depression. Often the distinction between dyspepsia and gastroparesis is based on clinical judgement rather than established criteria. Hyperglycemia, autonomic neuropathy, and enteric neuromuscular inflammation and injury are implicated in the pathogenesis of delayed GE. Alternatively, there are limited data to suggest that delayed GE may affect glycemic control. The management of diabetic gastroparesis is guided by the severity of symptoms, the magnitude of delayed GE, and the nutritional status. Initial options include dietary modifications, supplemental oral nutrition, and antiemetic and prokinetic medications. Patients with more severe symptoms may require a venting gastrostomy or jejunostomy and/or gastric electrical stimulation. Promising newer therapeutic approaches include ghrelin receptor agonists and selective 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor agonists.

Background: High-resolution manometry (HRM) is used to measure rectoanal pressures in defecatory disorders and fecal incontinence. This study sought to define normal values for rectoanal HRM, ascertain the effects of age and BMI on rectoanal pressures, and compare pressures in asymptomatic women with normal and prolonged balloon expulsion time (BET). Methods:High-resolution manometry pressures and BET were measured in 163 asymptomatic healthy participants. Women (96) and men (47) with normal BET were used to estimate normal values and the effects of age/BMI on pressures using a Medtronic 4.2-mm-diameter rectoanal catheter.Key Results: Age is associated with lower resting pressure, higher rectal pressure during evacuation, and a higher rectoanal gradient during evacuation in women and men. In women, the BET is also inversely correlated with age while the BMI is correlated with a higher threshold volume for discomfort and a longer BET. The anal squeeze pressure increment, squeeze duration, and HPZ length are higher in men than women. The rectoanal gradient during evacuation is also lower (ie, more negative) in asymptomatic women with an abnormal than a normal BET. Conclusions & Inferences:These findings provide an expanded database of normal values for anorectal HRM in men and women. Age and sex affect anal resting and squeeze pressures, respectively; rectal pressure during evacuation is also higher in older people. Less than 15% of asymptomatic people have BET >60 seconds, which is associated with manometry features of impaired evacuation. K E Y W O R D Sanorectal manometry, balloon expulsion test, constipation, defecatory disorders, pelvic floor dysfunction

Background & Aims Contrary to conventional wisdom, the rectoanal gradient during evacuation is negative in many healthy people, undermining the utility of anorectal high resolution manometry (HRM) for diagnosing defecatory disorders. We aimed to compare HRM and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for assessing rectal evacuation and structural abnormalities. Methods We performed a retrospective analysis of 118 patients (all female; 51 with constipation, 48 with fecal incontinence, and 19 with rectal prolapse; age, 53±1 years) assessed by HRM, the rectal balloon expulsion test (BET), and MRI at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, from February 2011 through March 2013. Thirty healthy asymptomatic women (age, 37±2 years) served as controls. We used principal components analysis of HRM variables to identify rectoanal pressure patterns associated with rectal prolapse and phenotypes of patients with prolapse. Results Compared to patients with normal findings from the rectal BET, patients with an abnormal BET had lower median rectal pressure (36 vs 22 mmHg, P=.002), a more negative median rectoanal gradient (−6 vs −29 mmHg, P=.006) during evacuation, and a lower proportion of evacuation, based on MRI analysis (median of 40% vs 80%, P<.0001). A score derived from rectal pressure and anorectal descent during evacuation and a patulous anal canal was associated (P=.005) with large rectoceles (3 cm or larger). A PC logistic model discriminated between patients with and without prolapse with 96% accuracy. Among patients with prolapse, there were 2 phenotypes – characterized by high (PC1) or low (PC2) anal pressures at rest and squeeze along with higher rectal and anal pressures (PC1) or a higher rectoanal gradient during evacuation (PC2). Conclusions In a retrospective analysis of patients assessed by HRM, measurements of rectal evacuation by anorectal HRM, BET, and MRI were correlated. HRM alone, and together with anorectal descent during evacuation, may identify rectal prolapse and large rectoceles, respectively, and also identify unique phenotypes of rectal prolapse.