Background: ␥-Secretase modulators (GSMs) hold potential as disease modifiers in Alzheimer disease; however, their mechanism of action is not completely understood. Results: Second generation in vivo active GSMs were described and shown to modulate A␤ production via a non-APP targeting mechanism, different from the NSAIDs class of GSMs. Conclusion: A growing class of second generation GSMs appears to target ␥-secretase and displays a different mechanism of action compared with first generation GSMs. Significance: The identification of in vivo active non-APP targeting second generation GSMs may facilitate the development of novel therapeutics against AD.

IL-1␤ is an endogenous pyrogen that is induced during systemic lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-or IL-1-induced fever. We have examined the fever and cytokine responses following i.p. injection of IL-1 agonists, IL-1␣ and IL-1␤, and compared these with response to LPS (i.p.) in wild-type and IL-1␤-deficient mice. The IL-1␤ deficient mice appear to have elevated body temperature but exhibit a normal circadian temperature cycle. Exogenously injected IL-1␤, IL-1␣, or LPS induced hyperresponsive fevers in the IL-1␤-deficient mice. We also observed phenotypic differences between wild-type and IL-1␤-deficient mice in hypothalamic basal mRNA levels for IL-1␣ and IL-6, but not for IL-1␤-converting enzyme or IL-1 receptor type I or type II. The IL-1␣ mRNA levels were down-regulated, whereas the IL-6 mRNA levels were up-regulated in the hypothalamus of IL-1␤-deficient mice as compared with wild-type mice. The IL-1␤-deficient mice also responded to LPS challenge with significantly higher serum corticosterone and with lower serum tumor necrosis factor type ␣ levels than the wild-type mice. The data suggest that, in the redundant cascade of proinf lammatory cytokines, IL-1␤ plays an important but not obligatory role in fever induction by LPS or IL-1␣, as well as in the induction of serum tumor necrosis factor type ␣ and corticosterone responses either by LPS or by IL-1␣ or IL-1␤.

IPS I]-hrIL-1L L to mIL-1RII-mIL-1RAcP complex can be inhibited either with antibodies to mIL-1RII (mAb 4E2), or by antibodies to mIL-1RAcP (mAb 4C5). The number of high affinity binding sites in cells stably transfected with the cDNA for mIL-1RII is dependent on the dose of cDNA for mIL-1RAcP used to transfect the cells. The high affinity complex between mIL-1RII and mIL-1RAcP is not preformed by interaction between the intracellular domains of these two transmembrane proteins, rather it appears to require the extracellular portions of mIL-1RII and mIL-1RAcP and the presence of a ligand. We suggest that in addition to its earlier described decoy receptor role, IL-1RII may modulate the responsiveness of cells to IL-1 by binding the IL-1RAcP in unproductive/non-signalling complexes and thus reducing the number of signalling IL-1RI-IL-1RAcP-agonist complexes when IL-1 is bound.z 1998 Federation of European Biochemical Societies.

Recent reports have implicated tau-tubulin kinase 1 (TTBK1) in the pathological phosphorylation of tau that occurs in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The present study was undertaken to provide an extensive characterization of TTBK1 mRNA and protein expression in human brain from AD cases and non-demented controls so as to better understand the disease relevance of this novel kinase. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry revealed abundant expression of TTBK1 in the somatodendritic compartment of cortical and hippocampal neurons of both AD cases and controls. TTBK1 immunoreactivity appeared to vary with the level of phospho-tau staining, and was strong in the somatodendritic compartment of apparently healthy hippocampal neurons as well as in pre-tangle neurons where it co-localized with diffuse phospho-Ser422 tau staining. Ser422 was confirmed as a TTBK1 substrate in vitro, and an antibody towards the site, in addition to labeling AT8-positive neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), neuritic plaques and neuropil threads, also labeled a small population of neurons that were unlabeled with AT8. These data suggest a role for TTBK1 in pre-tangle formation prior to the formation of fibrillar tau and strengthen the idea that tau is phosphorylated at Ser422 at an early/intermediate stage in NFT formation.

Gain-of-function mutations in the tetrodotoxin (TTX) sensitive voltage-gated sodium channel (Nav) Nav1.7 have been identified as a key mechanism underlying chronic pain in inherited erythromelalgia. Mutations in TTX resistant channels, such as Nav1.8 or Nav1.9, were recently connected with inherited chronic pain syndromes. Here, we investigated the effects of the p.M650K mutation in Nav1.8 in a 53 year old patient with erythromelalgia by microneurography and patch-clamp techniques. Recordings of the patient’s peripheral nerve fibers showed increased activity dependent slowing (ADS) in CMi and less spontaneous firing compared to a control group of erythromelalgia patients without Nav mutations. To evaluate the impact of the p.M650K mutation on neuronal firing and channel gating, we performed current and voltage-clamp recordings on transfected sensory neurons (DRGs) and neuroblastoma cells. The p.M650K mutation shifted steady-state fast inactivation of Nav1.8 to more hyperpolarized potentials and did not significantly alter any other tested gating behaviors. The AP half-width was significantly broader and the stimulated action potential firing rate was reduced for M650K transfected DRGs compared to WT. We discuss the potential link between enhanced steady state fast inactivation, broader action potential width and the potential physiological consequences.

The pharmacology and regulation of Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1) ion channel activity is intricate due to the physiological function as an integrator of multiple chemical, mechanical, and temperature stimuli as well as differences in species pharmacology. In this study, we describe and compare the current inhibition efficacy of human TRPA1 on three different TRPA1 antagonists. We used a homology model of TRPA1 based on Kv1.2 to select pore vestibule residues available for interaction with ligands entering the vestibule. Site-directed mutation constructs were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and their functionality and pharmacology assessed to support and improve our homology model. Based on the functional pharmacology results we propose an antagonist-binding site in the vestibule of the TRPA1 ion channel. We use the results to describe the proposed intravestibular ligand-binding site in TRPA1 in detail. Based on the single site substitutions, we designed a human TRPA1 receptor by substituting several residues in the vestibule and adjacent regions from the rat receptor to address and explain observed species pharmacology differences. In parallel, the lack of effect on HC-030031 inhibition by the vestibule substitutions suggests that this molecule interacts with TRPA1 via a binding site not situated in the vestibule.

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