Current literature suggests that the relationship between andragogy and pedagogy is based on a continuum. This study foundthatthe relationship ofandragogical and pedagogical orientations, measured by the Student's Orientation Questionnaire, is more correctly represented as being olthogonalor at right angles to each other. Such an orthogonal relationship reflects thecomplexities involved in adult learning. The paper discusses implications for both the learning process and for hture research.The arguments for and against the concept of andragogyhave been ragmgfor some time ( Cross, 1981 ;Davenport & Davenport, 1985a; Ehas, 1979;Houle, 1972;London, 1973;McKenzie, l977,1979;Rachal, 1983). Muchofthedebate stems fiom Mering plxlosoplycal viewpoints, classfication of andragogy (whether it is atheory, method, t e c h q u e or aset of assumptions) andthe general uthty or value of the term for adult education. Indeed, thereis even debate over Mering interpretations of the term andragogy as used in North America and Europe (Podesch, 1987). Cross( 1 9 8 1 ,~. 225)sumsupthesituationby claiming that "the current position seems to be that andragogy consists of a Merent set of assumptions from pedagogy but that it is neither uniquely suited to adults nor superior to more tradtional education." (also discussion by Harris, 1989;Knowles, 1984a;Pratt, 1988). Further, Pratt (1988 contends that, whle andragogical practice has been seen as particularly appropriate for the teachmg of adults, recent debate has abandoned the andragogy-pedagogy dchotomy whch claims that teachmg adults is sigmficantly Merent from the teachmg of youths.An extension of these arguments focuses on the relabonshp between andragom andpedagogy. As Rachal(1983) comments: ". ..we oversimpw and
Managers emphasize that the critical skills and abilities required for effective management are holistic, empathetic, and action oriented and urge that management education include opportunities for more live process or hands-on exposure. This article addresses the nature of interaction-learning projects involving live natural organizations and advocates an enlarged concept of the learning arena to include four stakeholders: the students, the instructor, the contact person, and the organization. Differing expectations and role responsibilities for each stakeholder are identified. Specific suggestions are generated to help instructors manage the learning experience so that each stakeholder achieves a positive outcome.
Current management development techniques are obsolete. The West has passed through three eras — those of the classical model, the human relations model, and the systems model. The authors, after a research study involving the CEOs of 50 major Australian organisations, believe that organisational thinking is taking a new direction. Development techniques are moving towards more holistic, empathetic, culture‐sensitive technology. The nature of the fourth “blueprint” is analysed, and the managerial competencies it will demand are outlined.
China is embarked on a state‐led programme of institutional experimentation and learning. Informal data collected during reciprocal visits by Australian and Chinese management educators note that two fundamental areas of reform are being undertaken at enterprise level; the instigation of piecework‐related bonuses and a profit retention system, and the transfer of production/business responsibility from Party executives to those of the enterprise. This commitment has been accompanied by rapid tertiary level management education and extension studies. However, the disciplinary, disintegrated character of such programmes needs to be combated by co‐operative projects, e.g. the MBA programme resulting from co‐operation between the Chinese State Economic Commission and the EEC, in order to produce proactive managers. China's Seventh Five‐Year Plan reaffirms a commitment to developing intellectual resources and expanding higher education.
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