The brain controls energy homeostasis and body weight by integrating various metabolic signals. Leptin, an adipose-derived hormone, conveys critical information about peripheral energy storage and availability to the brain. Leptin decreases body weight by both suppressing appetite and promoting energy expenditure. Leptin directly targets hypothalamic neurons, including AgRP and POMC neurons. These leptin-responsive neurons widely connect to other neurons in the brain, forming a sophisticated neurocircuitry that controls energy intake and expenditure. The anorexigenic actions of leptin are mediated by LEPRb, the long form of the leptin receptor, in the hypothalamus. LEPRb activates both JAK2-dependent and -independent pathways, including the STAT3, PI 3-kinase, MAPK, AMPK, and mTOR pathways. These pathways act coordinately to form a network that fully mediates leptin response. LEPRb signaling is regulated by both positive (e.g., SH2B1) and negative (e.g., SOCS3 and PTP1B) regulators and by endoplasmic reticulum stress. Leptin resistance, a primary risk factor for obesity, likely results from impairment in leptin transport, LEPRb signaling, and/or the neurocircuitry of energy balance.

Obesity is associated with an activated macrophage phenotype in multiple tissues that contributes to tissue inflammation and metabolic disease. To evaluate the mechanisms by which obesity potentiates myeloid activation, we evaluated the hypothesis that obesity activates myeloid cell production from bone marrow progenitors to potentiate inflammatory responses in metabolic tissues. High fat diet-induced obesity generated both quantitative increases in myeloid progenitors as well as a potentiation of inflammation in macrophages derived from these progenitors. In vivo, hematopoietic stem cells from obese mice demonstrated the sustained capacity to preferentially generate inflammatory CD11c+ adipose tissue macrophages after serial bone marrow transplantation. We identified that hematopoietic MyD88 was important for the accumulation of CD11c+ adipose tissue macrophage accumulation by regulating the generation of myeloid progenitors from HSCs. These findings demonstrate that obesity and metabolic signals potentiate leukocyte production and that dietary priming of hematopoietic progenitors contributes to adipose tissue inflammation.

The proinflammatory activation of leukocytes in adipose tissue contributes to metabolic disease. How crosstalk between immune cells initiates and sustains adipose tissue inflammation remains an unresolved question. We have examined the hypothesis that adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) interact with and regulate the function of T cells. Dietary obesity was shown to activate the proliferation of effector memory CD4+ T cells in adipose tissue. Our studies further demonstrate that ATMs are functional antigen-presenting cells that promote the proliferation of interferon-γ–producing CD4+ T cells in adipose tissue. ATMs from lean and obese visceral fat process and present major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II–restricted antigens. ATMs were sufficient to promote proliferation and interferon-γ production from antigen-specific CD4+ T cells in vitro and in vivo. Diet-induced obesity increased the expression of MHC II and T-cell costimulatory molecules on ATMs in visceral fat, which correlated with an induction of T-cell proliferation in that depot. Collectively, these data indicate that ATMs provide a functional link between the innate and adaptive immune systems within visceral fat in mice.

Purpose of review Proinflammatory adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) contribute to obesity-associated disease morbidity. We will provide an update of the current state of knowledge regarding the phenotypic and functional diversity of ATMs in lean and obese mice and humans. Recent findings The phenotypic diversity of ATMs is now known to include more than two types requiring an expansion of the simple concept of an M2 to M1 shift with obesity. Potential functions for ATMs now include the regulation of fibrosis and response to acute lipolysis in states of caloric restriction. Novel pathways that can potentiate ATM action have been identified, which include inflammasome activation and the response to lipodystrophic adipose tissue. Studies provide a new appreciation for the ability of ATMs to respond dynamically to the adipose tissue microenvironment. Summary ATMs play a key role in shaping the inflammatory milieu within adipose tissue, and it is now apparent that ATM heterogeneity is acutely shaped by the adipose tissue environment. To account for the new findings, we propose a new nomenclature for ATM subtypes that takes into account their diversity.

Background-Cardiac troponin I and T (cTnI and cTnT) are specific biochemical serum markers for acute myocardial infarction (AMI). However, cTnI diagnostic assays are plagued by difficulties, resulting in Ն20-fold differences in measured values. These discrepancies may result from the release of the numerous cTnI modification products that are present in ischemic myocardium. The resolution of these discrepancies requires an investigation of the exact forms of cTnI present in the bloodstream of patients after myocardial injury. Methods and Results-A western blot-direct serum analysis protocol was developed that allowed us to detect intact cTnI and a spectrum of up to 11 modified products in the serum from patients with AMI. For the first time, we document both a cTnI degradation pattern and the existence of phosphorylated cTnI in serum. The number and extent of these modifications reflect patterns similar to the time profiles of the routine clinical serum markers of total creatine kinase, creatine kinase-MB, and cTnI (determined by ELISA). Data from in vitro experiments, which were undertaken to study the degradation of human recombinant cTnI and cTnT when spiked in serum, indicate that some modification products present in patient serum existed in the myocardium and that recombinant cTnI alteration dramatically reduces the detectability of cTnI by the Immuno1 assay over time (our assay was unaffected). Key Words: troponin Ⅲ myocardial infarction Ⅲ biological markers Ⅲ diagnosis Ⅲ blotting, western I t is widely accepted that the presence of cardiac troponin I or T (cTnI or cTnT) in blood serum indicates myocardial damage; thus, cTnI and cTnT are considered specific biochemical markers for acute myocardial infarction (AMI). [1][2][3] Despite the widespread use of cTnI and cTnT detection as a diagnostic tool in acute coronary syndromes, problems arise from variations in the sensitivity, selectivity, and specificity of various commercially available diagnostic cTnI immunoassay kits. 4 -7 These differences are due to (1) the lack of mass standardization, 8 -10 (2) the presence of post-translationally modified cTnI in the serum, and (3) variations in antibody cross-reactivities to the various detectable forms of cTnI. 10,11 Although cTnT is thought to be unaffected by such problems, this remains to be proven: thus far, only one manufacturer has marketed a diagnostic cTnT assay. The underlying reason for this controversy is the inability to determine reliably the exact forms and amounts of cTnI and cTnT present in blood. Conclusions-ThisOn the basis of previous findings, some have proposed that only a small amount of free intact cTnI is detectable in blood, with the predominant form being a complex between cTnI and cardiac tropinin C. 11-13 However, post-translational modifications, including selective degradation, covalent complex formation, and phosphorylation of cTnI, occur in the myocardium of ischemic-reperfused rat hearts 14 -16 and human postischemic myocardium. 17,18 In fact, these modification products, and ...

SH2B1 (previously named SH2-B), a cytoplasmic adaptor protein, binds via its Src homology 2 (SH2) domain to a variety of protein tyrosine kinases, including JAK2 and the insulin receptor. SH2B1-deficient mice are obese and diabetic. Here we demonstrated that multiple isoforms of SH2B1 (α, β, γ, and/or δ) were expressed in numerous tissues, including the brain, hypothalamus, liver, muscle, adipose tissue, heart, and pancreas. Rat SH2B1β was specifically expressed in neural tissue in SH2B1-transgenic (SH2B1 Tg ) mice. SH2B1 Tg mice were crossed with SH2B1-knockout (SH2B1 KO ) mice to generate SH2B1 TgKO mice expressing SH2B1 only in neural tissue but not in other tissues. Systemic deletion of the SH2B1 gene resulted in metabolic disorders in SH2B1 KO mice, including hyperlipidemia, leptin resistance, hyperphagia, obesity, hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance. Neuron-specific restoration of SH2B1β not only corrected the metabolic disorders in SH2B1 TgKO mice, but also improved JAK2-mediated leptin signaling and leptin regulation of orexigenic neuropeptide expression in the hypothalamus. Moreover, neuron-specific overexpression of SH2B1 dose-dependently protected against high-fat diet-induced leptin resistance and obesity. These observations suggest that neuronal SH2B1 regulates energy balance, body weight, peripheral insulin sensitivity, and glucose homeostasis at least in part by enhancing hypothalamic leptin sensitivity. IntroductionBody weight is controlled by a balance between energy intake and expenditure. Excess energy derived from a positive energy imbalance is stored as triglyceride (TG) in adipose tissue, resulting in obesity. Body weight is maintained within a narrow range by a homeostatic control system in which the brain, particularly the hypothalamus, senses and integrates various neuronal, hormonal, and nutrientrelated signals, thereby coordinating food intake and energy expenditure. Recent findings provide a framework for understanding this homeostatic regulation of body weight. Leptin, which serves as an essential adiposity signal, is produced primarily by white adipose tissue to convey information about peripheral energy storage and availability to the hypothalamus (1-3). Genetic deficiency of either leptin or its receptor disrupts the communication between the peripheral energy stores and the central sensors/integrators, resulting in severe energy imbalance and morbid obesity (4-8). Leptin resistance plays a key role in the development of obesity, which is a primary risk factor for type 2 diabetes and various cardiovascular disorders.Leptin binds to and activates its long form receptor (LEPRb) in the hypothalamus, initiating the activation of a variety of intracellular signaling pathways, including the STAT3 and PI3K pathways (8-12). Inhibition of either the STAT3 or PI3K pathways in the hypothalamus results in leptin resistance and obesity, demonstrating an essential role for these 2 pathways in mediating leptin regulation of energy metabolism and body weight (11-17). JAK2, ...

Summary An adaptive immune response triggered by obesity is characterized by the activation of adipose tissue CD4+ T cells by unclear mechanisms. We have examined if interactions between adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) and CD4+ T cells contribute to adipose tissue metainflammation. Intravital microscopy identifies dynamic antigen dependent interactions between ATMs and T cells in visceral fat. Mice deficient in major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) showed protection from diet-induced obesity. Deletion of MHCII expression in macrophages led to an adipose tissue specific decrease in the effector/memory CD4+ T cells, attenuation of CD11c+ ATM accumulation, and improvement in glucose intolerance by increasing adipose tissue insulin sensitivity. Ablation experiments demonstrated that the maintenance of proliferating conventional T cells is dependent on signals from CD11c+ ATMs in obese mice. These studies demonstrate the importance of MHC Class II restricted signals from ATMs that regulate adipose tissue T cell maturation and metainflammation.

Within adipose tissue, multiple leukocyte interactions contribute to metabolic homeostasis in health as well as to the pathogenesis of insulin resistance with obesity. Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs) are the predominant leukocyte population in fat and contribute to obesity-induced inflammation. Characterization of ATMs and other leukocytes in the stromal vascular fraction from fat has benefited from the use of flow cytometry and flow-assisted cell sorting techniques. These methods permit the immunophenotyping, quantification, and purification of these unique cell populations from multiple adipose tissue depots in rodents and humans. Proper isolation, quantification, and characterization of ATM phenotypes are critical for understanding their role in adipose tissue function and obesity-induced metabolic diseases. Here, we present the flow cytometry protocols for phenotyping ATMs in lean and obese mice employed by our laboratory.