The prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthases-1 and 2 (PGHS-1 and PGHS-2; also cyclooxygenases-1 and 2, COX-1 and COX-2) catalyze the committed step in prostaglandin synthesis. PGHS-1 and 2 are of particular interest because they are the major targets of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) including aspirin, ibuprofen, and the new COX-2 inhibitors. Inhibition of the PGHSs with NSAIDs acutely reduces inflammation, pain, and fever, and long-term use of these drugs reduces fatal thrombotic events, as well as the development of colon cancer and Alzheimer's disease. In this review, we examine how the structures of these enzymes relate mechanistically to cyclooxygenase and peroxidase catalysis, and how differences in the structure of PGHS-2 confer on this isozyme differential sensitivity to COX-2 inhibitors. We further examine the evidence for independent signaling by PGHS-1 and PGHS-2, and the complex mechanisms for regulation of PGHS-2 gene expression.

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The subcellular locations of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase-1 and -2 (PGHS-1 and -2) were determined by quantitative confocal fluorescence imaging microscopy in murine 3T3 cells and human and bovine endothelial cells using immunocytofluorescence with isozyme-specific antibodies. In all of the cell types examined, PGHS-1 immunoreactivity was found equally distributed in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and nuclear envelope (NE). PGHS-2 immunoreactivity was also present in the ER and NE. However, PGHS-2 staining was twice as concentrated in the NE as in the ER. A histofluorescence staining method was developed to localize cyclooxygenase/peroxidase activity. In quiescent 3T3 cells, which express only PGHS-1, histofluorescent staining was most concentrated in the perinuclear cytoplasmic region. In contrast, histochemical staining for PGHS-2 activity was about equally intense in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm, a pattern of activity staining distinct from that observed with PGHS-1. Our results indicate that there are significant differences in the subcellular locations of PGHS-1 and PGHS-2. It appears that PGHS-1 functions predominantly in the ER whereas PGHS-2 may function in the ER and the NE. We speculate that PGHS-1 and PGHS-2 acting in the ER and PGHS-2 functioning in the NE represent independent prostanoid biosynthetic systems.

Considerable debate exists regarding the cellular source of prostaglandins in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). At least two forms of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase, or cyclooxygenase (COX), the principal enzyme in the biosynthesis of these mediators, are known to exist. Both forms have been identified in the CNS, but only the distribution of COX 1 has been mapped in detail. In this study, we used Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry to describe the biochemical characterization and anatomical distribution of the second, mitogen-inducible form of this enzyme, COX 2 in the rat brain. COX 2-like immunoreactive (COX 2-ir) staining occurred in dendrites and cell bodies of neurons, structures that are typically postsynaptic. It was noted in distinct portions of specific cortical laminae and subcortical nuclei. The distribution in the CNS was quite different from COX 1. COX 2-ir neurons were primarily observed in the cortex and allocortical structures, such as the hippocampal formation and amygdala. Within the amygdala, neurons were primarily observed in the caudal and posterior part of the deep and cortical nuclei. In the diencephalon, COX 2-ir cells were also observed in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and in the nuclei of the anteroventral region surrounding the third ventricle, including the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis. COX 2-ir neurons were also observed in the subparafascicular nucleus, the medial zona incerta, and pretectal area. In the brainstem, COX 2-ir neurons were observed in the dorsal raphe nucleus, the nucleus of the brachium of the inferior colliculus, and in the region of the subcoeruleus. The distribution of COX 2-ir neurons in the CNS suggests that COX 2 may be involved in processing and integration of visceral and special sensory input and in elaboration of the autonomic, endocrine, and behavioral responses.

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The anthocyanins (1-3) and cyanidin isolated from tart cherries exhibited in vitro antioxidant and antiinflammatory activities comparable to commercial products. The inhibition of lipid peroxidation of anthocyanins 1-3 and their aglycon, cyanidin, were 39, 70, 75, and 57%, respectively, at 2-mM concentrations. The antioxidant activities of 1-3 and cyanidin were comparable to the antioxidant activities of tert-butylhydroquinone and butylated hydroxytoluene and superior to vitamin E at 2-mM concentrations. In the antiinflammatory assay, cyanidin gave IC50 values of 90 and 60 mM, respectively, for prostaglandin H endoperoxide synthase-1 and prostaglandin H endoperoxide synthase-2 enzymes.

Cytochrome oxidase activates and reduces O(2) to water to sustain respiration and uses the energy released to drive proton translocation and adenosine 5'-triphosphate synthesis. A key intermediate in this process, P, lies at the junction of the O(2)-reducing and proton-pumping functions. We used radioactive iodide labeling followed by peptide mapping to gain insight into the structure of P. We show that the cross-linked histidine 240-tyrosine 244 (His240-Tyr244) species is redox active in P formation, which establishes its structure as Fe(IV) = O/Cu(B)2+-H240-Y244. Thus, energy transfer from O2 to the protein moiety is used as a strategy to avoid toxic intermediates and to control energy utilization in subsequent proton-pumping events.