Ni 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) complexes are commonly employed photoredox catalysts of bondforming reactions in organic chemistry. However, the mechanisms by which they operate are still under investigation. One potential mode of catalysis is via entry into Ni(I)/Ni(III) cycles, which can be made possible by light-induced, excited state Ni(II)-C bond homolysis. Here we report experimental and computational analyses of a library of Ni(II)-bpy aryl halide complexes, Ni( R bpy)( R′ Ph)Cl (R = MeO, t-Bu, H, MeOOC; R′ = CH3, H, OMe, F, CF3), to illuminate the mechanism of excited state bond homolysis. At given excitation wavelengths, photochemical homolysis rates span two orders of magnitude across these structures and correlate linearly with Hammett parameters of both bpy and aryl ligands, reflecting structural control over key metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) and ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) excited state potential energy surfaces (PESs). Temperature-and wavelength-dependent investigations reveal moderate excited state barriers (ΔH ‡ ~4 kcal mol -1 ) and a minimum energy excitation threshold (~55 kcal mol -1 , 525 nm), respectively. Correlations to electronic structure calculations further support a mechanism in which repulsive triplet excited state PESs featuring a critical aryl-to-Ni LMCT lead to bond rupture. Structural control over excited state PESs provides a rational approach to utilize photonic energy and leverage excited state bond homolysis processes in synthetic chemistry.
Multireference electronic structure calculations consistent with known experimental data have elucidated a novel mechanism for photo-triggered Ni(II)-C homolytic bond dissociation in Ni 2,2'bipyridine (bpy) photoredox catalysts. Previously, a thermally assisted dissociation from the lowest energy triplet ligand field excited state was proposed and supported by density functional theory (DFT) calculations that reveal a barrier of ~30 kcal mol-1. In contrast, multireference ab initio calculations suggest this process is disfavored, with barrier heights of ~70 kcal mol-1 , and highlight important ligand noninnocent contributions to excited state relaxation and bond dissociation processes that are not captured with DFT. In the multireference description, phototriggered Ni(II)-C homolytic bond dissociation occurs via initial population of a singlet Ni(II)-tobpy metal-to-ligand charge transfer (1 MLCT) excited state followed by intersystem crossing and aryl-to-Ni(III) charge transfer, overall a formal two-electron transfer process driven by a single photon. This results in repulsive triplet excited states from which spontaneous homolytic bond dissociation can occur, effectively competing with relaxation to the lowest energy, nondissociative triplet Ni(II) ligand field excited state. These findings guide important electronic structure considerations for the experimental and computational elucidation of the mechanisms of ground and excited state cross-coupling catalysis mediated by Ni heteroaromatic complexes.
We report the facile photochemical generation of a library of Ni(I)−bpy halide complexes (Ni(I)( R bpy)X (R = t-Bu, H, MeOOC; X = Cl, Br, I) and benchmark their relative reactivity toward competitive oxidative addition and off-cycle dimerization pathways. Structure−function relationships between the ligand set and reactivity are developed, with particular emphasis on rationalizing previously uncharacterized ligand-controlled reactivity toward high energy and challenging C(sp 2 )−Cl bonds. Through a dual Hammett and computational analysis, the mechanism of the formal oxidative addition is found to proceed through an S N Ar-type pathway, consisting of a nucleophilic two-electron transfer between the Ni(I) 3d(z 2 ) orbital and the C aryl −Cl σ* orbital, which contrasts the mechanism previously observed for activation of weaker C(sp 2 )−Br/I bonds. The bpy substituent provides a strong influence on reactivity, ultimately determining whether oxidative addition or dimerization even occurs. Here, we elucidate the origin of this substituent influence as arising from perturbations to the effective nuclear charge (Z eff ) of the Ni(I) center. Electron donation to the metal decreases Z eff , which leads to a significant destabilization of the entire 3d orbital manifold. Decreasing the 3d(z 2 ) electron binding energies leads to a powerful two-electron donor to activate strong C(sp 2 )−Cl bonds. These changes also prove to have an analogous effect on dimerization, with decreases in Z eff leading to more rapid dimerization. Ligand-induced modulation of Z eff and the 3d(z 2 ) orbital energy is thus a tunable target by which the reactivity of Ni(I) complexes can be altered, providing a direct route to stimulate reactivity with even stronger C−X bonds and potentially unveiling new ways to accomplish Ni-mediated photocatalytic cycles.
Ni 2,2’–bipyridine (bpy) complexes are commonly employed photoredox catalysts of bond-forming reactions in organic chemistry. However, the mechanisms by which they operate are still under investigation. One potential mode of catalysis is via entry into Ni(I)/Ni(III) cycles, which can be made possible by light-induced, excited state Ni(II)–C bond homolysis. Here we report experimental and computational analyses of a library of Ni(II)-bpy aryl halide complexes, Ni(Rbpy)(R′Ph)Cl (R = MeO, t-Bu, H, MeOOC; R′ = CH3, H, OMe, F, CF3), to illuminate the mechanism of excited state bond homolysis. At given excitation wavelengths, photochemical homolysis rates span two orders of magnitude across these structures and correlate linearly with Hammett parameters of both bpy and aryl ligands, reflecting structural control over key metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) and ligand-to-metal charge transfer (LMCT) excited state potential energy surfaces (PESs). Temperature- and wavelength-dependent investigations reveal moderate excited state barriers (ΔH‡ ~4 kcal mol-1) and a minimum energy excitation threshold (~55 kcal mol-1, 525 nm), respectively. Correlations to electronic structure calculations further support a mechanism in which repulsive triplet excited state PESs featuring a critical aryl-to-Ni LMCT lead to bond rupture. Structural control over excited state PESs provides a rational approach to utilize photonic energy and leverage excited state bond homolysis processes in synthetic chemistry.
We investigated the chemistry of singlet oxygen with a cadmium–sulfur cluster, (Me4N)2[Cd4(SPh)10]. This cluster was used as a model for cadmium–sulfur nanoparticles. Such nanoparticles are often used in conjunction with photosensitizers (for singlet oxygen generation or dye-sensitized solar cells), and hence, it is important to determine if cadmium–sulfur moieties physically quench and/or chemically react with singlet oxygen. We found that (Me4N)2[Cd4(SPh)10] is indeed a very strong quencher of singlet oxygen with total rate constants for 1O2 removal of (5.8 ± 1.3) × 108 M–1 s–1 in acetonitrile and (1.2 ± 0.5) × 108 M–1 s–1 in CD3OD. Physical quenching predominates, but chemical reaction leading to decomposition of the cluster and formation of sulfinate is also significant, with a rate constant of (4.1 ± 0.6) × 106 M–1 s–1 in methanol. Commercially available cadmium–sulfur quantum dots (“lumidots”) show similar singlet oxygen quenching rate constants, based on the molar concentration of the quantum dots.
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