During the post-antibiotic golden age, it has seen a massive antibiotic/antibacterial production and an increase in irrational use of these few existing drugs in the medical and veterinary practice, food industries, tissue cultures, agriculture and commercial ethanol production globally. The irrational drug use has been further exacerbated by the increased marketing and promotion of these drugs by the pharmaceutical companies thus increasing their accessibility in the public and hence their improper use. The lack of production and introduction of the newer and effective antibiotic/antibacterial drugs in clinical practice in the post-antibiotic golden age has seen an increase in the emergence of the resistant pathogenic bacterial infections creating a significant problem in the global health of humankind. The massive productions of the antibiotic/antibacterial drugs have contributed to the poor disposal of these drugs and hence many of them are discharged in various water bodies contributing to the environmental antibiotic/antibacterial drug pollution. In the environment, these drugs exert pressure on the environmental bacteria by destroying useful bacteria that are responsible for the recycling of the organic matter and as well as promoting the selection of the resistant pathogenic bacteria that can spread in human and animal population thus causing an increase in the observed bacterial disease burden and hence a significant global public health problem. The resistant bacterial diseases lead to the high cost, increased occurrence of adverse drug reactions, prolonged hospitalization, the exposure to the second-and third-line drugs like in MDR-TB and XDR-TB that leads to toxicity and deaths as well as the increased poor production in agriculture and animal industry and commercial ethanol production.

"flatoxins are a group of naturally occurring carcinogens that are known to contaminate different human and animal food stuffs. "flatoxins are poisonous by-products from soil-borne fungus Aspergillus, which is responsible for the decomposition of plant materials [ -]. The occurrence of aflatoxins foods and food products vary with geographic location, agricultural and agronomic practices. The susceptibility of food product to fungal attack occurs during pre-harvest, transportation, storage, and processing of the foods [ , , , , , ]. The problem of aflatoxin contamination of the food products is a common problem in tropical and subtropical regions of the world especially in the developing countries such as the sub-Saharan countries with poor practices and where the environmental conditions of warm temperatures and humidity favors the growth fungi [ , , , , , ]. The various food products contaminated with aflatoxins include cereals like maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice and wheat oilseeds such as groundnut, soybean, sunflower and cotton spices like chillies, black pepper, coriander, turmeric and zinger tree nuts such as almonds, pistachio, walnuts and coconut and milk and milk products [ ]. The aflatoxins were initially isolated and identified as the causative agent in Turkey X disease that caused necrosis of the liver in and over , turkeys died in England and US" and the death was attributed to the consumption of a mould-contaminated peanut meal [ , , , , ]. Very high concentrations of aflatoxins are most often found in nutritive seeds such as maize, nuts and cereal grains in "frica and rice in China and Southeast "sia [ , , , -].

Irrational antibiotics/antibacterial (AB) drug use is a global problem, especially in developing countries. This results in an increased emergence of resistance to most common bacteria, higher cost of treatment, prolonged hospitalization and adverse drug reactions. Interventions measures have been instituted to avert the problem but it still persists. A systematic review was conducted to determine the effect of different interventions (education, managerial, diagnostic tests, regulatory, economic and multifaceted) on misuse of AB drugs in developing countries. A total of 722 articles were retrieved and 55 were reviewed. About 10.9% of the studies were from Africa, 63.6% from Asia, 9.1% from Latin America, and 16.4% from Southeastern Europe. A total of 52.7% of the studies were from hospital settings, 5.5% from outpatient departments, 21.8% were from public health care facilities, 12.7% from private pharmacies/drug stores, and 7.3% from the communities. Education intervention had 27.3% studies, managerial had 20%, managerial/education had 3.6%, regulatory had 9.1%, education/regulation had 9.1% and diagnostic had 3.6% studies. Multifaceted intervention had 27.3% studies, with 63% improvement in appropriate AB doses prescribed, 2.6% mean number of AB encounter reduction, 23% AB prescription reduction, 18.3% generic AB prescription improvement, 32.1% reduction in AB use, 89% reduction in AB use in acute respiratory infection, 82% in surgery, 62.7% mean reduction in deliveries, 39% in STDs, 36.3% mean reduction in diarrhea, 14.6% mean reduction AB use in malaria, and 6% -11% in the cost of treating bacteria-resistant organisms. Also noted was 6.3% reductions in mean AB encounters after 1 month of intervention, and then increased to 7.7% after 3 months thus lacking sustainability. Multifaceted interventions were effective in reducing irrational AB drug use in the various health facilities and communities as well as reduction in the emergence of resistance to the commonest bacteria in the developing countries though there was lack of sustainability or continuity of rational drug use over the time.Rational use of drugs: is where patients receive medications appropriate to their clinical needs, in doses that meet their own individual requirements for an adequate period of time and at the lowest cost to them and their community [2][3][4].Irrational drug use: is where there is over -prescribing, extravagant prescribing, incorrect prescribing, under-prescribing, and multiple prescribing as well as indiscriminate drug use [2][3][4].Drug misuse: Is the improper, unlawful or incorrect use and misapplication of drugs (refers to both irrational and inappropriate drug use) [5][6][7][8][9] Inappropriate use: Refers to use of wrong drug, indication, wrong patient and with wrong patient information as well as in inadequate doses, wrong duration and indiscriminate drug use [1,[5][6][7][8]9].

Leaf extracts of Mangifera indica (L.), a medicinal and horticultural plant were investigated for antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Esherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Using the agar‐well diffusion and the gradient serial dilution methods the extracts showed weak antibacterial activity against the study organisms compared with the positive control (gentamycin). The ethanolic extract was most active with minimum inhibitory concentration ranging from 5481.0 to 43750.0 μg ml−1. Chemical tests showed the presence of saponins, steroids and triterpenoids in the ether fraction, alkaloids, anthracenocides, coumarins, flavonones, reducing sugars, catechol and gallic tannins, saponins, steroids and triterpenoids in the ethanolic portion and anthracenocides, flavonones, reducing sugars in the aqueous fraction of the plant extract. These results shows that leaf extracts of M. indica possess some antibacterial activity that could be the basis for their medicinal use in Uganda.

Mangifera indica L. is a common horticulture and medicinal plant, which is used traditionally to treat various infections. A previous study has shown its leaf extracts to have antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This study investigated the activity of the leaf extracts against Clostridium tetani, which causes many deaths around the world. Ether and ethanolic leaf extracts were obtained by sequential extractions. Qualitative studies were carried out to determine the different classes of compounds in the extracts. The chemical tests showed that the ether extract had saponins, steroids and triterpenoids, while the ethanol extract had alkaloids, anthracenosides, coumarins, flavonones, reducing sugars, catechol and gallic tannins, saponins, steroids and triterpenoids. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the extracts against the study organism was determined using the gradient serial dilution method. Gentamycin and distilled water were used as controls. Both the ethereal and ethanolic fractions showed anti‐clostridium tetani activity with an MIC of 6.25 and 12.5 mg ml−1, respectively.