These data imply that the protein kinase A and mTOR signaling cascades are important for the development of follicular thyroid carcinogenesis and may suggest new targets for therapeutic intervention. Mouse models paralleling the development of the stages of human FTC should provide important new tools for understanding the mechanisms of FTC development and progression and for evaluating new therapeutics.

Thyroid cancer is the most common endocrine malignancy in the population, and the incidence of this cancer is increasing at a rapid rate. Although genetic analysis of papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) has identified mutations in a large percentage of patients, the genetic basis of follicular thyroid cancer (FTC) is less certain. Thyroid cancer, including both PTC and FTC has been observed in patients with the inherited tumor predisposition Carney Complex (CNC), caused by mutations in PRKAR1A. In order to investigate the role of loss of PRKAR1A in thyroid cancer, we generated a tissue-specific knockout of Prkar1a in the thyroid. We report that the resulting mice are hyperthyroid and developed follicular thyroid neoplasms by one year of age, including FTC in over 40% of animals. These thyroid tumors showed a signature of pathway activation different from that observed in other models of thyroid cancer. In vitro cultures of the tumor cells indicated that Prkar1a-null thyrocytes exhibited growth factor independence and suggested possible new therapeutic targets. Overall, this work represents the first report of a genetic mutation known to cause human follicular thyroid cancer that exhibits a similar phenotype when modeled in the mouse. In addition to adding to our knowledge of the mechanisms of human follicular thyroid tumorigenesis, this model is highly reproducible and may provide a viable mechanism for the further clinical development of therapies aimed at follicular thyroid cancer.

The Carney complex is an inherited tumor predisposition caused by activation of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase [protein kinase A (PKA)] resulting from mutation of the PKA-regulatory subunit gene PRKAR1A. Myxomas and tumors in cAMP-responsive tissues are cardinal features of this syndrome, which is unsurprising given the important role played by PKA in modulating cell growth and function. Previous studies demonstrated that cardiac-specific knockout of Prkar1a causes embryonic heart failure and myxomatous degeneration in the heart, whereas limited Schwann cell-specific knockout of the gene causes schwannoma formation. In this study, we sought to determine the role of PKA activation in this phenotype by using genetic means to reduce PKA enzymatic activity. To accomplish this goal, we introduced null alleles of the PKA catalytic subunits Prkaca (Ca) or Prkacb (Cb) into the Prkar1a-cardiac knockout (R1a-CKO) or limited Schwann cell knockout (R1a-TEC3KO) line. Heterozygosity for Prkaca rescued the embryonic lethality of the R1a-CKO, although mice had a shorter than normal lifespan and died from cardiac failure with atrial thrombosis. In contrast, heterozygosity for Prkacb only enabled the mice to survive 1 extra day during embryogenesis. Biochemical analysis indicated that reduction of Ca markedly reduced PKA activity in embryonic hearts, whereas reduction of Cb had minimal effects. In R1a-TEC3KO mice, tumorigenesis was completely suppressed by a heterozygosity for Prkaca, and by more than 80% by heterozygosity for Prkacb. These data suggest that both developmental and tumor phenotypes caused by Prkar1a mutation result from excess PKA activity due to PKA-Ca.

The cranial neural crest (CNC) undergoes complex molecular and morphological changes during embryogenesis in order to form the vertebrate skull, and nearly three quarters of all birth defects result from defects in craniofacial development. The molecular events leading to CNC differentiation have been extensively studied; however, the role of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase [protein kinase A (PKA)] during craniofacial development has only been described in palate formation. Here, we provide evidence that strict PKA regulation in postmigratory CNC cells is essential during craniofacial bone development. Selective inactivation of Prkar1a, a regulatory subunit of the PKA holoenzyme, in the CNC results in perinatal lethality caused by dysmorphic craniofacial development and subsequent asphyxiation. Additionally, aberrant differentiation of CNC mesenchymal cells results in anomalous intramembranous ossification characterized by formation of cartilaginous islands in some areas and osteolysis of bony trabeculae with fibrous connective tissue stabilization in others. Genetic interaction studies revealed that genetic reduction of the PKA catalytic subunit C(alpha) was able to rescue the phenotype, whereas reduction in Cbeta had no effect. Overall, these observations provide evidence of the essential role of proper regulation of PKA during the ossification of the bones of the skull. This knowledge may have implications for the understanding and treatment of craniofacial birth defects.

No abstract

Schwannomas are peripheral nerve sheath tumors that often occur in the setting of an inherited tumor predisposition syndrome, including Neurofibromatosis Types 1 (NF1) and 2 (NF2), Familial Schwannomatosis (FS) and Carney Complex (CNC). Loss of the NF2 tumor suppressor (encoding NF2, or Merlin) is associated with upregulation of the Rac1 small GTPase, which is thought to play a key role in mediating tumor formation. In prior studies, we generated a mouse model of schwannomas by performing tissue-specific knockout of the CNC gene Prkar1a, which encodes the type 1A regulatory subunit of Protein Kinase A. These tumors exhibited down-regulation of Nf2 protein and an increase in activated Rac1. To assess the requirement for Rac1 in schwannoma formation, we generated a double knockout of Prkar1a and Rac1 in Schwann cells and monitored tumor formation. Loss of Rac1 reduced tumor formation by reducing proliferation and enhancing apoptosis. Surprisingly, the reduction of tumor formation was accompanied by re-expression of the Nf2 protein. Furthermore, activated Rac1 was able to downregulate Nf2 in vitro in a Pak-dependent manner. These in vivo data indicate that activation of Rac1 is responsible for suppression of Nf2 protein production; deficiency of Nf2 in Schwann cells leads to loss of cellular growth control and tumor formation.. Further, PKA activation through mutation in Prkar1a is sufficient to initiate Rac1 signaling, with subsequent reduction of Nf2 and schwannomagenesis. Although in vitro evidence has shown that loss of Nf2 activates Rac1, our data indicates that signaling between Nf2 and Rac1 occurs in a bidirectional fashion, and these interactions are modulated by PKA.

Since the onset of the genomic era, there has been tremendous progress in identifying the genetic causes of endocrine tumors. Although this knowledge is valuable in its own right, understanding the molecular basis of tumorigenesis allows the development of new therapies targeted towards the causative defects. Understanding the connection between genotype and phenotype is a complex process, which can only be partially understood from analysis of primary tumors or from studies of cells in vitro. To bridge this gap, genetically modified mice have been developed in order to allow molecular dissection of the relevant defects in an intact organism. In this review, we will discuss the status of genetic modeling for hereditary and sporadic endocrine tumorigenesis with a goal towards providing a picture of how this technology will be of future benefit to clinicians developing specifically targeted therapies for endocrine tumors.

The Braf proto-oncogene is a key component of the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade and is a critical regulator of both normal development and tumorigenesis in a variety of tissues. In order to elucidate BRAF’s differing roles in varying cell types, it is important to understand both the pattern and timing of BRAF expression. Here we report the production of a mouse model that links the expression of Braf with the bright red fluorescent protein, tdTomato. We have utilized a P2A knock-in strategy, ensuring that BRAF and the fluorophore are expressed from the same endogenous promoter and from the same bicistronic mRNA transcript. This mouse model (BrafTOM) shows bright red fluorescence in organs and cell types known to be sensitive to BRAF perturbation. We further show that on a cell-by-cell basis, fluorescence correlates with BRAF protein levels. Finally, we extend the utility of this mouse by demonstrating that the remnant P2A fragment attached to BRAF acts as a suitable epitope for immunoprecipitation and biochemical characterization of BRAF in vivo.