The evolution of sexual dimorphism (SD) is driven by intricate interplays between sexual and natural selection. When it comes to SD variation within populations, however, environmental factors play a major role. Sexually selected traits are expected to be strongly dependent on individual body condition, which is influenced by the local environment that individuals experience. As a consequence, the degree of SD may also depend on resource availability. Here, we investigated the potential drivers of SD expression at two sexually dimorphic morphometric traits, body size (snout vent length) and head shape (head geometric morphometrics), in the Italian wall lizard (Podarcis siculus). We assessed the existence of condition- and context-dependent SD across ten islands of the Aeolian archipelago (southern Italy), at within- and among-population scales. We observed strong geographical variation of SD among islands, and tested three potential SD predictors related to resource availability (individual body condition, ecosystem productivity, temperature). Body condition and ecosystem productivity were the main drivers of body size SD variation, and body condition was also the main driver for head shape SD. Our results highlight that the expression of SD in the Italian wall lizard is both condition- and context-dependent. These results are congruent at within- and among-populations scales highlighting that spatial multi-scale analysis represents a useful approach to understand patterns of SD expression.
The golden Alpine salamander Salamandra atra aurorae Trevisan, 1982 is an endemic subspecies found in Sette Comuni and Vezzena plateau in Veneto, Italy. We describe an aggressive interaction between two males which fought for four minutes, trying to go on top of each other and rubbing their chin on the antagonist’s head. This is the first documented case of aggressive behaviour in Salamandra atra aurorae.
Cave-dwelling animals might be regarded as dead-end points when it comes to their evolution and habitat exploitation. However, in the past different observations of the olms’ typical troglomorphic populations have been reported for springs of Venetia Giulia, along with a community rich in stygobionts (Bressi et al. 1999; Stoch 2017). The aim of this work is to point out the non-random active use of surface habitats by this community, providing a comparison with the occurrence observed in caves and performing an assessment of factors favouring ecotone habitats exploitation. Since 2020 we started multiple day and night surveys of olms in both 71 springs and 11 caves. Each spring and cave habitat monitored has been characterised by respect to abiotic and biotic features, including planktonic and benthic prey availability. Additionally, cave and spring populations of Troglocaris sp. were tested to determine whether they showed any behavioral difference regarding their response to light stimuli and predatory cues, as potential adaptations to the different conditions found in the two habitats. We used 34 individuals sampled from three springs and 24 from two caves of the Italian karst. We detected the olm at least once in 12 springs, with a maximum of 9 individuals occurring together. Detection probability in springs and caves was similar. Spring habitats provided higher density of potential prey available. Olms seem to prefer springs without predator fish and temporary hydroperiod. We recorded in one spring a larva of 3.5 cm which could be the smallest ever recorded in the field. Preliminary results of the behavioral experiments show no susceptibility to light neither for spring nor cave populations of Troglocaris sp., as for chemical cues we expect a difference in reactivity depending on the habitat of origin of the shrimp, consistently with the top predator present. We suggest that epigean habitats and borders with surface may have an underestimated importance for animals adapted to subterranean environments (Manenti and Piazza 2021), including the olm. Further studies focusing on the ipogean community which actively exploits spring habitats are underway, with the aim of determining the diel occupation of these complex ecotones.
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