Osteoclasts are cells derived from bone marrow macrophages and are important in regulating bone resorption during bone homeostasis. Understanding what drives osteoclast differentiation and activity is important when studying diseases characterized by heightened bone resorption relative to formation, such as osteoporosis. In the last decade, studies have indicated that reactive oxygen species (ROS), including superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, are crucial components that regulate the differentiation process of osteoclasts. However, there are still many unanswered questions that remain. This review will examine the mechanisms by which ROS can be produced in osteoclasts as well as how it may affect osteoclast differentiation and activity through its actions on osteoclastogenesis signaling pathways. In addition, the contribution of ROS to the aging-associated disease of osteoporosis will be addressed and how targeting ROS may lead to the development of novel therapeutic treatment options.

Connexin (Cx) 43 serves important roles in bone function and development. Targeted deletion of Cx43 in osteoblasts or osteocytes leads to increased osteocyte apoptosis, osteoclast recruitment, and reduced biomechanical properties. Cx43 forms both gap junction channels and hemichannels, which mediate the communication between adjacent cells or between cell and extracellular environments, respectively. Two transgenic mouse models driven by a DMP1 promoter with the overexpression of dominant negative Cx43 mutants were generated to dissect the functional contribution of Cx43 gap junction channels and hemichannels in osteocytes. The R76W mutant blocks gap junction channel, but not hemichannel function, and the Δ130-136 mutant inhibits activity of both types of channels. Δ130-136 mice showed a significant increase in bone mineral density compared to WT and R76W mice. MicroCT analyses revealed a significant increase in total tissue and bone area in midshaft cortical bone of Δ130-136 mice. The bone marrow cavity was expanded, whereas the cortical thickness was increased and associated with increased bone formation along the periosteal area. However, there is no significant alteration in the structure of trabecular bone. Histologic sections of the midshaft showed increased apoptotic osteocytes in Δ130-136, but not in WT and R76W, mice which correlated with altered biomechanical and estimated bone material properties. Osteoclasts were increased along the endocortical surface in both transgenic mice with a greater effect in Δ130-136 mice which likely contributed to the increased marrow cavity. Interestingly, the overall expression of serum bone formation and resorption markers were higher in R76W mice. These findings suggest that osteocytic Cx43 channels play distinctive roles in the bone; hemichannels play a dominant role in regulating osteocyte survival, endocortical bone resorption and periosteal apposition, and gap junction communication is involved in the process of bone remodeling.

CASP2/caspase 2 plays a role in aging, neurodegeneration, and cancer. The contributions of CASP2 have been attributed to its regulatory role in apoptotic and nonapoptotic processes including the cell cycle, DNA repair, lipid biosynthesis, and regulation of oxidant levels in the cells. Previously, our lab demonstrated CASP2-mediated modulation of autophagy during oxidative stress. Here we report the novel finding that CASP2 is an endogenous repressor of autophagy. Knockout or knockdown of CASP2 resulted in upregulation of autophagy in a variety of cell types and tissues. Reinsertion of Caspase-2 gene (Casp2) in mouse embryonic fibroblast (MEFs) lacking Casp2 (casp2−/−) suppresses autophagy, suggesting its role as a negative regulator of autophagy. Loss of CASP2-mediated autophagy involved AMP-activated protein kinase, mechanistic target of rapamycin, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and autophagy-related proteins, indicating the involvement of the canonical pathway of autophagy. The present study also demonstrates an important role for loss of CASP2-induced enhanced reactive oxygen species production as an upstream event in autophagy induction. Additionally, in response to a variety of stressors that induce CASP2-mediated apoptosis, casp2−/− cells demonstrate a further upregulation of autophagy compared with wild-type MEFs, and upregulated autophagy provides a survival advantage. In conclusion, we document a novel role for CASP2 as a negative regulator of autophagy, which may provide important insight into the role of CASP2 in various processes including aging, neurodegeneration, and cancer.

Objective Connexin (Cx) 43 hemichannels play a role in mechanotransduction. This study was undertaken in order to determine if Cx43 hemichannels were activated in rat temporomandibular joint (TMJ) chondrocytes under mechanical stimulation. Methods Sprague-Dawley rats were stimulated dental-mechanically. Cx43 expression in rat TMJ cartilage was determined with immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR, and Cx43 hemichannel opening was evaluated by the extra- and intracellular levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Both primary rat chondrocytes and ATDC5 cells were treated with fluid flow shear stress (FFSS) to induce hemichannel opening. The Cx43 expression level was then determined by real-time PCR or western blotting, and the extent of Cx43 hemichannel opening was evaluated by measuring both PGE2 release and cellular dye uptake. Results Cx43 expression and intra- and extracellular PGE2 levels were increased in mechanically-stimulated rat TMJ cartilage compared to the unstimulated control. The FFSS treatment increased Cx43 expression and induced Cx43 hemichannel opening in primary rat chondrocytes and ATDC5 cells indicated by enhanced PGE2 release and dye uptake. Furthermore, the Cx43 hemichannel opening could be blocked by the addition of 18β-glycyrrhetinic acid, a connexin channel inhibitor, Cx43-targeting siRNA, or by withdrawal of FFSS stimulation. The migration of cytosolic Cx43 protein to the plasma membrane in ATDC5 cells was still significant after 8h post 2-h FFSS treatment, and the Cx43 protein level was still high at 48h which returned to control levels at 72h after treatment. Conclusion Cx43 hemichannels are activated and mediate small molecule exchange between TMJ chondrocytes and matrix under mechanical stimulation.

Cancer prevention is a cost-effective alternative to treatment. In mice, the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibitor rapamycin prevents distinct spontaneous, non-inflammatory cancers, making it a candidate broad-spectrum cancer prevention agent. We now show that oral microencapsulated rapamycin (eRapa) prevents skin cancer in dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA)/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) carcinogen-induced, inflammation-driven carcinogenesis. eRapa given before DMBA/TPA exposure significantly increased tumor latency, reduced papilloma prevalence and numbers, and completely inhibited malignant degeneration into squamous cell carcinoma. Rapamycin is primarily an mTORC1-specific inhibitor, but eRapa did not reduce mTORC1 signaling in skin or papillomas, and did not reduce important pro-inflammatory factors in this model, including p-Stat3, IL-17A, IL-23, IL-12, IL-1β, IL-6, or TNF-α. In support of lack of mTORC1 inhibition, eRapa did not reduce numbers or proliferation of CD45−CD34+CD49fmid skin cancer initiating stem cells in vivo and marginally reduced epidermal hyperplasia. Interestingly, eRapa reduced DMBA/TPA-induced skin DNA damage and the hras codon 61 mutation that specifically drives carcinogenesis in this model, suggesting reduction of DNA damage as a cancer prevention mechanism. In support, cancer prevention and DNA damage reduction effects were lost when eRapa was given after DMBA-induced DNA damage in vivo. eRapa afforded picomolar concentrations of rapamycin in skin of DMBA/TPA-exposed mice, concentrations that also reduced DMBA-induced DNA damage in mouse and human fibroblasts in vitro. Thus, we have identified DNA damage reduction as a novel mechanism by which rapamycin can prevent cancer, which could lay the foundation for its use as a cancer prevention agent in selected human populations.