Delirium is a highly prevalent disease in the elderly and postoperative, cancer, and AIDS patients. However it is often misdiagnosed and mistreated. This may be partly due to the inconsistencies of the diagnosis itself. Delirium is best defined currently by an association of cognitive impairment and arousal disturbance. Three subtypes (hyperactive, hypoactive, mixed) receive a definition in the literature, but those definitions may vary from author to author according to the importance they give either to the motoric presentation of the delirium or to the arousal disturbance. Our aim is to point out the inconsistencies we found in the literature, but also to identify different paths that have been explored to solve them, that is, the suggestion to emphasize the arousal disturbances in defining the subtypes instead of the motoric presentations, which seem to be more fluctuating, and because of the fluctuating course of the disease to extend the observation over a period of time, which may improve the accuracy of the diagnosis. This is not without importance from a clinical standpoint. Subtypes of delirium may be explained by different pathophysiologic mechanisms, which remain partly unexplained, and may respond to specific treatments. There is a trend to isolate core symptoms (disorientation, cognitive deficits, sleep-wake cycle disturbance, disorganized thinking, and language abnormalities) so as to distinguish them from secondary symptoms that may be correlated with the different etiologies. Our contribution is also to challenge, with new data, the accepted belief that psychotic features are quite rare in the hypoactive type of delirium. We demonstrate that delusions and perceptual disturbances, although less frequent, are present in more than half of the patients with hypoactive delirium. The psychotic features are clearly correlated with a highly prevalent rate of patients', spouses', and caregivers' distress. The mixed subtype of delirium seems to have the worst prognosis, the hyperactive showing the best prognosis. The treatment of the agitated delirious patient is also more consensual. Haloperidol remains the gold standard in the treatment of delirium regardless of the clinical presentation, but the literature provides several alternatives that may prove more specific and have less adverse effects (atypical antipsychotics, psychostimulants, anesthetics).
The management of insomnia in patients experiencing chronic pain requires careful evaluation, good diagnostic skills, familiarity with cognitive-behavioural interventions and a sound knowledge of pharmacological treatments. Sleep disorders are characterised by a circular interrelationship with chronic pain such that pain leads to sleep disorders and sleep disorders increase the perception of pain. Sleep disorders in individuals with chronic pain remain under-reported, under-diagnosed and under-treated, which may lead--together with the individual's emotional, cognitive and behavioural maladaptive responses--to the frequent development of chronic sleep disorders. The moderately positive relationship between pain severity and sleep complaints, and the specificity of pain-related arousal and mediating variables such as depression, illustrate that insomnia in relation to chronic pain is multifaceted and poorly understood. This may explain the limited success of the available treatments. This article discusses the evaluation of patients with chronic pain and insomnia and the available pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions to manage the sleep disorder. Non-pharmacological interventions should not be considered as single interventions, but in association with one another. Some non-pharmacological interventions especially the cognitive and behavioural approaches, can be easily implemented in general practice (e.g. stimulus control, sleep restriction, imagery training and progressive muscle relaxation). Hypnotics are routinely prescribed in the medically ill, regardless of their adverse effects; however, their long-term efficacy is not supported by robust evidence. Antidepressants provide an interesting alternative to hypnotics, since they can improve pain perception as well as sleep disorders in selected patients. Sedative antipsychotics can be considered for sleep disturbances in those patients exhibiting psychotic features, or for those with contraindications to benzodiazepines. Low doses of sedative antipsychotics may improve chronic insomnia in the elderly. However, no intervention is likely to be effective unless a good physician-patient relationship is developed.
Background The aims of the study were (a) to assess individual meaning in life (MiL) in a mixed sample of cancer patients with the Schedule for Meaning in Life Evaluation (SMiLE), (b) to evaluate the acceptability of its French version, and (c) to compare it to a student sample. Materials and methods Consecutive cancer patients (N = 100) treated as outpatients in the University Hospital Lausanne (N = 80) and in a nearby hospice (N = 20) were evaluated with the SMiLE, a reliable and validated respondent-generated instrument for the assessment of MiL. The respondents list three to seven areas, which provide meaning to their life and rate the level of importance (weighting) and satisfaction of each area. Indices of total weighting (index of weighting (IoW), range 20-100), total satisfaction (index of satisfaction (IoS), range 0-100), and total weighted satisfaction (index of weighted satisfaction (IoWS), range 0-100) are calculated. Results Patients most often indicated areas related to relationships as providing MiL, while material things were listed less often. Since satisfaction with relevant areas was high, cancer patients reported the same level of weighted satisfaction (IoWS) as a healthy student sample, assessed with the SMiLE in a prior validation study. Patients judged the SMiLE as reflecting well their MiL, not distressing to fill in and were moderately positive with regard to its helpfulness. Conclusions MiL of cancer patients was surprisingly high, possibly due to the "response shift" of the severely ill. The SMiLE might become a useful tool for research and an opener to communication between patients and clinicians about this highly relevant topic in cancer care. Further studies with larger sample sizes and different designs, complemented by qualitative research, are needed to deepen our understanding of this so characteristically human topic, which is so easy to perceive and so difficult to grasp.
The intervention was not effective with regards to psychometric outcome. The results have to be interpreted in light of the study design [untargeted intervention], the low levels of psychiatric symptoms, dropout of symptomatic patients, and the high prevalence of alexithymia.
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