We have evaluated the role of nitric oxide (NO) on the activity of the constitutive and induced forms of cyclooxygenase (COX; COX-1 and COX-2, respectively). Induction of NO synthase (NOS) and COX (COX-2) in the mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 by Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (1 ,ug/ml, 18 h) caused an increase in the release of nitrite (NOj ) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), products of NOS and COX, respectively. Production of both NOj and PGE2 was blocked by the NOS inhibitors NG.monomethyl-L-arinine or aminoguanidine. Production of NO from constitutive NOS is a key regulator of homeostasis, whereas the generation of NO by inducible NOS plays an important role in the host-defense response (1). NOS shares a number of similarities with cyclooxygenase (COX). COX is the rate-limiting enzyme in the biosynthesis of prostaglandins (PGs), thromboxane A2, and prostacycin (PGI2). In addition to the well-characterized constitutive form of COX (COX-1) (4), an inducible isoform of COX (COX-2) is found in endothelial cells (5), fibroblasts (6), and macrophages (7-9) after treatment with proinflammatory agents including LPS and IL-1,3. Antiinflammatory steroids such as dexamethasone inhibit the induction of inducible NOS in vitro and in vivo but have no effect on the expression of constitutive NOS (1). In addition, dexamethasone inhibits IL-13-and LPSstimulated COX-2 protein synthesis in vitro (7,8) and in vivo (8, 9) but has no effect on the constitutive form of COX.Many effectors of NO production lead to the simultaneous release of mediators (such as PGE2 and PGI2) from the COX pathway. This is true for the rapidly acting agonists such as bradykinin (10)(11)(12) and for the longer acting agents such as LPS or 8 (13,14). NO, PGI2, or PGE2 increase the levels of cGMP or cAMP in effector cells (e.g., platelets). This synergistic effect may be one mechanism(s) through which the NOS and COX systems operate to amplify a physiological or pathological response.Another possible interaction is at the level of the enzyme. In this respect, the COX enzymes are potential targets for NO because they contain an iron-heme center at their active site (15)(16)(17), and indeed, the vast majority of effects mediated by NO are a consequence of its interaction with iron or ironcontaining enzymes. For example, the ability of NO to inhibit platelet aggregation and to relax vascular smooth muscle is the result of NO binding to the heme-Fe2+ prosthetic group of the soluble guanylate cyclase leading to its stimulation and subsequent increase in the levels of cGMP (18,19

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1 The role of nitric oxide (NO) derived from constitutive and inducible nitric oxide synthase (cNOS and iNOS) and its relationship to oxygen-derived free radicals and prostaglandins (PG) was investigated in a carrageenan-induced model of acute hindpaw inflammation. 2 The intraplantar injection of carrageenan elicited an inflammatory response that was characterized by a time-dependent increase in paw oedema, neutrophil infiltration, and increased levels of nitrite/nitrate (NO2-/NO3-) and prostaglandin E2(PGE2) in the paw exudate. 3 Paw oedema was maximal by 6 h and remained elevated for 10 h following carrageenan administration. The non-selective cNOS/iNOS inhibitors, N0-monomethyl-L-arginine (L-NMMA) and NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) given intravenously (30-300 mg kg-') 1 h before or after carrageenan administration, inhibited paw oedema at all time points. 4 The selective iNOS inhibitors, N-iminoethyl-L-lysine (L-NIL) or aminoguanidine (AG), failed to inhibit carrageenan-induced paw oedema during the first 4 h following carrageenan administration, but inhibited paw oedema at subsequent time points (from 5-10 h). iNOS mRNA was detected between 3 to 10 h following carrageenan administration using ribonuclease protection assays. iNOS protein was first detected 6 h and was maximal 10 h following carrageenan administration as shown by Western blot analysis. Administration of the iNOS inhibitors 5 h after carrageenan (a time point where iNOS was expressed) inhibited paw oedema at all subsequent time points. Infiltrating neutrophils were not the source of iNOS since pretreatment with colchicine (2 mg kg-) suppressed neutrophil infiltration, but did not inhibit the iNOS mRNA expression or the elevated N02-/NO3-levels in the paw exudate. 5 Inhibition of paw oedema by the NOS inhibitors was associated with attenuation of both the N02-/NO3-and PGE2 levels in the paw exudate. These inhibitors also reduced the neutrophil infiltration at the site of inflammation. 6 Recombinant human Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase coupled to polyethyleneglycol (PEGrhSOD;12 x 103 u kg-'), administered intravenously either 30 min prior to or 1 h after carrageenan injection, inhibited paw oedema and neutrophil infiltration, but had no effect on NO2y/NO3-or PGE2 production in the paw exudate. The administration of catalase (40 x 103 u kg-'), given intraperitoneally 30 min before carrageenan administration, had no effect on paw oedema. Treatment with desferrioxamine (300 mg kg-'), given subcutaneously 1 h before carrageenan, inhibited paw oedema during the first 2 h after carrageenan administration, but not at later times. 7 These results suggest that the NO produced by cNOS is involved in the development of inflammation at early time points following carrageenan administration and that NO produced by iNOS is involved in the maintenance of the inflammatory response at later time points. The potential interactions of NO with superoxide anion and PG is discussed.

Novel classes of pain-relieving molecules are needed to fill the void between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents and narcotics. Our studies have identified superoxide as a novel mediator of hyperalgesia (clinically defined as an augmented sensitivity to painful stimuli) and have exposed potential pathways through which this radical modulates the hyperalgesic response. The role of superoxide in pain was elucidated using a superoxide dismutase mimetic, M40403 [a manganese(II) complex with a bis(cyclo-hexylpyridine-substituted) macrocyclic ligand]. Intraplantar injection of carrageenan in rats led to timedependent development of peripheral inflammation [measured parameters of inflammation included paw edema, cytokine release in the paw exudates, nitrotyrosine formation (a marker of peroxynitrite formation and oxidative stress), and poly-ADPribose-polymerase activation (the nuclear enzyme activated by superoxide/peroxynitrite)] and hyperalgesia. M40403 blocked all measured parameters of inflammation and hyperalgesia. Furthermore, when given therapeutically (2 h after the induction of hyperalgesia) either by intravenous or intrathecal administration, M40403 but not its inactive congener M40404 inhibited hyperalgesia with a rapid onset of action. Our results also show that, at the level of the spinal cord and time of peak hyperalgesia, endogenous manganese superoxide dismutase was nitrated and subsequently deactivated, losing its capacity to remove superoxide. The antihyperalgesic effects of M40403 were not reversed by naloxone excluding the potential involvement of an opiate pathway. Collectively, these studies have unraveled a critical role for superoxide in the nociceptive signaling cascade both peripherally and centrally. The discovery of this pathway opens a new therapeutic strategy for the development of novel nonnarcotic antihyperalgesic agents.

Many human diseases are associated with the overproduction of oxygen free radicals that inflict cell damage. A manganese(II) complex with a bis(cyclohexylpyridine)-substituted macrocyclic ligand (M40403) was designed to be a functional mimic of the superoxide dismutase (SOD) enzymes that normally remove these radicals. M40403 had high catalytic SOD activity and was chemically and biologically stable in vivo. Injection of M40403 into rat models of inflammation and ischemia-reperfusion injury protected the animals against tissue damage. Such mimics may result in better clinical therapies for diseases mediated by superoxide radicals.

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Increased understanding of the role of mitochondria under physiological and pathological conditions parallels increased exploration of synthetic and natural compounds able to mimic MnSOD – endogenous mitochondrial antioxidant defense essential for the existence of virtually all aerobic organisms from bacteria to humans. This review describes most successful mitochondrially-targeted redox-active compounds, Mn porphyrins and MitoQ10 in detail, and briefly addresses several other compounds that are either catalysts of O2·− dismutation, or its non-catalytic scavengers, and that reportedly attenuate mitochondrial dysfunction. While not a true catalyst (SOD mimic) of O2·− dismutation, MitoQ10 oxidizes O2·− to O2 with a high rate constant. In vivo it is readily reduced to quinol, MitoQH2, which in turn reduces ONOO− to ·NO2, producing semiquinone radical that subsequently dismutes to MitoQ10 and MitoQH2, completing the “catalytic” cycle. In MitoQ10, the redox-active unit was coupled to alkyl chain and monocationic triphenylphosphonium ion in order to reach mitochondria. Mn porphyrin-based SOD mimics, however, were designed so that their multiple cationic charge and alkyl chains determine both their remarkable SOD potency and carry them into mitochondria. Several animal efficacy studies such as skin carcinogenesis and UVB-mediated mtDNA damage, and subcellular distribution studies of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and mouse heart provided unambiguous evidence that Mn porphyrins mimic the site and action of MnSOD, which in turn contributes to their efficacy in numerous in vitro and in vivo models of oxidative stress. Within a class of Mn porphyrins, lipophilic analogues are particularly effective for treating central nervous system injuries where mitochondria play key role.

We have previously demonstrated that a failure of pulmonary endothelial cell survival induced by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) receptor blockade results in lung alveolar septal cell apoptosis and emphysema. Because apoptosis and oxidative stress may be pathobiologically linked, we hypothesized that oxidative stress has a central role in alveolar septal cell apoptosis and emphysema induced by VEGF receptor blockade. When compared with control animals, rats treated with the VEGF receptor blocker SU5416 showed increased alveolar enlargement, alveolar septal cell apoptosis, and expression of markers of oxidative stress, all of which were prevented by the superoxide dismutase mimetic M40419. The preservation of lung structure in SU5416+M40419-treated lungs was associated with increased septal cell proliferation, and enhanced phosphorylation of the prosurvival and antiapoptotic Akt, when compared with SU5416-treated lungs. Consistent with a positive feedback interaction between oxidative stress and apoptosis, we found that apoptosis predominated in areas of oxidative stress, and that apoptosis blockade by a broad spectrum caspase inhibitor markedly reduced the expression of markers of oxidative stress induced by SU5416 treatment. Oxidative stress and apoptosis, which cause lung cellular destruction in emphysema induced by VEGF receptor blockade, may be important mediators common to human and experimental emphysema.